GIFT   OF 


PRACTICAL  STUDIES 
in 

SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 


PRACTICAL  STUDIES 

IN 

SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

By 

HOWARD  LESLIE  LUNT,  A.  M. 

Associate  Professor  of  Education, 
Supervisor  of  Practice  Teaching 

University  High  School 
University  of  Southern  California 


Special  Edition 


Los  Angeles,  California 
1919 


Copyright  1919,  by 

HOWARD  LESLIE  LUNT 

(All  rights  reserved.) 


Press  of  the 
Grtfton  Pvblitbing  Corporation 


INTRODUCTION 

"Practical  Studies  in  Sentence  Analysis"  is  a  revision 
and  an  enlargement  of  the  author's  former  work,  entitled 
11 A  Study  of  the  English  Sentence,"  which  was  published 
in  1895.  In  this  work  was  printed  for  the  first  time  a 
new  method  of  written  (visual)  sentence  analysis, 
designed  as  a  substitute  for  the  defective  ''diagram 
system"  then  in  vogue. 

Since  that  time  the  writer  has  taught  his  scheme  of 
combined  oral  and  written  analysis  of  the  English 
sentence  to  many  classes  of  pupils  and  teachers,  who  have 
voluntarily  given  personal  testimony  to  its  practical 
value.  The  memory  of  these  words  of  commendation 
has  furnished,  for  the  most  part,  the  author's  main  motive 
for  organizing  in  a  textbook  the  results  of  his  past 
experiences  in  studying  and  teaching  the  functional 
elements  of  the  English  sentence.  In  no  sense  is  this 
work  to  be  regarded  as  a  substitute  for  a  textbook  on 
English  Grammar,  but  rather  as  a  supplement  to  almost 
any  grammar  that  would  serve  as  a  reference  book  for 
rules,  principles,  and  definitions. 

It  must  be  acknowledged  that  much  of  the  teaching  of 
English  grammar  has  had  to  do  with  the  recognition  and 
classification  of  the  Parts  of  Speech,  and  that  no  sufficient 
attention  has  been  given  to  the  classification  of  unit 
elements  according  to  their  special  functions.  The  impor- 
tance of  sentence  analysis  has  been  noted  by  the  New 
York  Boar.d  of  Regents  in  an  "English  Syllabus"  in  the 
following  terms : 

"To  help  the  pupil  to  develop  the  'sentence  sense'  and  to 
grasp  the  thought  of  difficult  sentences,  much  of  the  time  given 
to  the  study  of  grammar  should  be  spent  in  the  analysis  of 
sentences  just  within  the  limit  of  his  mental  ability,  such 
analysis  consisting  of  rapid  drill  in  syntax  of  words,  phrases, 
and  clauses." 


iv  INTRODUCTION 

The  opinions  of  eminent  thinkers  and  writers  on  the 
teaching  of  English  grammar  as  a  school  subject  ought 
to  influence  the  character  of  present-day  textbooks,  as 
well  as  present-day  methods. 

"I  can  write  all  the  grammar  of  the  English  language,"  once 
said  a  prominent  college  president,  "on  four  pages  of  foolscap." 

In  the  same  tenor  writes  Professor  A.  S.  Hill  in  his 
excellent  work,  "Our  English": 

"Above  all,  the  time  and  energies  of  the  young  should  not  be 
wasted  upon  formal  grammar.  Several  hours  judiciously  used 
should  suffice  to  teach  an  intelligent  boy  the  few  points  of 
grammar  which  it  is  necessary  for  him  to  know. 

' '  How  many  precious  hours  are  wasted  on  mere  parsing,  as 
if  it  were  not  more  important  for  a  child  to  understand  a  given 
sentence  as  a  whole  than  to  know  that  this  word  in  a  sentence 
is  a  noun,  that  one  an  adverb  of  manner — or  whatever  it  may 
be  called  in  the  treatise  in  vogue  at  the  moment. ' ' 

In  an  article  on  "Grammar",  the  Encyclopedia  Brit- 
tanica  upholds  the  following  propositions,  which  touch 
strongly  the  point  in  question: 

"The  unit  of  speech  is  the  sentence;  and  it  is  with  the 
sentence,  therefore,  and  not  with  the  list  of  words  and  forms, 
that  the  pupil  should  begin.  We  must  first  master  the  expression 
of  a  complete  thought,  and  then  break  it  up  into  its  several 
elements. 

"The  idea  that  the  free  use  of  speech  is  tied  down  by  the 
rules  of  the  grammar  must  first  be  given  up.  We  must  get  rid 
of  the  idea  that  English  grammar  should  be  modeled  after  that 
of  ancient  Rome:  until  we  do  so  we  shall  never  understand  even 
the  elementary  principles  upon  which  it  is  based.  We  cannot 
speak  of  declensions,  since  English  has  no  genders  except  in 
the  pronouns  of  the  third  person,  and  no  cases  except  the 
genitive  and  a  few  faint  traces  of  an  old  dative.  Its  verbal 
conjugation  is  essentially  different  from  that  of  an  inflexional 
language  like  Latin,  and  cannot  be  compressed  into  the  same 
categories.  In  English  the  syntax  has  been  enlarged  at  the 
expense  of  the  accidence.  Position  has  taken  the  place  of 
form.  To  speak  of  an  adjective  'agreeing'  with  its  substantive 
is  as  misleading  as  to  speak  of  a  verb  'governing'  a  case.  Apart 
from  the  personal  pronouns  the  accusative  of  the  classical 
languages  can  be  represented  only  by  position." 

In  his  lectures  on  "The  Teaching  of  English  Grammar" 
Professor  F.  A.  Barbour,  of  the  Michigan  State  Normal 
College,  puts  the  case  very  well: 


INTRODUCTION 


"As  a  matter  of  logical  training,"  he  says,  "the  grammatical 
analysis  of  our  uninfiected  vernacular  is  a  more  severe  discipline 
than  the  translation  of  a  highly  inflected  foreign  language  like 
Latin.  .  .  .  The  mere  fact  that  in  English  the  pupil  is 
obliged  to  get  the  meaning  of  the  sentence  from  the  order  of 
the  words,  and  from  a  logical  insight  into  the  content  of  the 
thought  with  little  or  no  aid  from  the  form  of  the  words  — 
this  very  fact  makes  the  study  of  English  grammar  a  more 
abstract,  and  difficult,  and  disciplinary  subject  than  the 
grammar  of  any  highly  inflected  speech. ' ' 

In  support  of  this  rather  uncommon  view  he  proceeds 
to  quote  so  high  an  authority  as  Professor  Whitney,  the 
author  of  " Essentials  of  English  Grammar": 

"Give  me/'  says  Whitney,  "a  man  who  can  with  full 
intelligence  take  to  pieces  an  English  sentence  —  brief,  and 
not  too  complicated  —  and  I  will  welcome  him  as  better  pre- 
pared for  further  study  in  other  languages  than  if  he  had  read 
both  Caesar  and  Virgil,  and  could  parse  them  in  the  routine 
style  in  which  they  are  so  often  parsed. ' ' 

The  practical  outcome  of  the  mental  discipline  acquired 
from  the  logical  analysis  of  sentences,  as  contributing  to 
the  student's  constructive  ability  is  emphasized  by  Pro- 
fessor Barbour: 

"Analysis  is  the  careful  study  of  the  concrete  form  which 
thought  assumes  in  expression,"  he  declares;  "writing,  speak- 
ing, composition  are  the  putting  of  our  thought  into  similar 
forms;  surely  the  analytic  study  of  a  model  will  aid  in  the 
synthetic  process  of  building.  I  am  convinced  that  such  study 
has  a  marked  influence  upon  the  student's  ability  to  marshal 
his  own  phrases  and  clauses  more  easily  and  with  a  firmer 
hand." 

Professor  S.  S.  Laurie,  of  the  University  of  Edinburgh, 
in  his  exposition  of  ''Language  as  a  Formal  Discipline ", 
dwells  on  the  advantages  of  the  systematic  study  of 
Grammar  —  "the  analysis  of  words  and  sentences": 

"Grammatical  teaching,"  he  says,  "can  have  only  three 
possible  objects  in  a  school:  the  formal  discipline  of  mind,  the 
more  thorough  understanding  of  reading,  and  the  art  of  com- 
position. .  .  .  The  principal  defect  found  in  the  teaching  of 
Grammar  in  schools  is  want  of  accuracy  and  precision  on  the 
part  of  the  teachers.  This  prevails  to  a  scandalous  extent. 
This  defect  manifestly  vitiates  the  whole  teaching,  and  makes 
it  worse  than  useless." 


vi  INTRODUCTION 

Modern  educational  methods  point  out  that  both 
teacher  and  learner  must  make  use  of  the  eye  along  with 
the  ear  as  a  complementary  avenue  of  approach  to  the  seat 
of  the  understanding.  The  best  method  of  teaching  any 
subject  depends  for  its  success  upon  the  logical  use  of 
abstract,  representative  symbols,  rough  sketchings,  out- 
lines, and  diagrams  that  present  to  the  eye  relations  in  a 
compact  compass.  It  is  the  "natural  geometry  of  the 
intellect "  that  finds  special  satisfaction  in  the  use  and 
interpretation  of  signs,  symbols,  and  lines  of  relations. 
By  this  method  the  abstract  and  indefinite  becomes 
"mentally  concrete". 

The  practical  value  of  this  system  of  visual  analysis,  as 
exemplified  in  these  pages,  lies  in  the  fact,  that  the  student 
can,  by  means  of  arbitrary  symbols,  express  briefly  the 
results  of  his  thinking;  and  the  teacher,  directing  the 
blackboard  work  of  a  whole  class,  can  judge  at  sight 
the  correctness  of  each  person's  work. 

Experience  has  shown  the  necessity  of  providing  two 
sets  of  explanatory  symbols:  one  to  represent  the  gram- 
matical relations  in  the  regular  predicative  sentence  and 
clause ;  and  the  other,  the  somewhat  different  forms  and 
relations  in  the  so-called  non-predicative,  or  infinitive 
clause. 

It  is  advisable  that  the  teacher  and  the  advanced 
student,  for  the  sake  of  getting  more  extended  details, 
should  make  use  of  the  books  of  reference  listed  herein.  To 
these  works  especially  is  the  writer  indebted  for  certain 
fundamental  ideas,  illustrative  material,  practical  defin- 
itions, and  working  principles. 

I  am  also  under  obligation  to  my  colleague,  Dr.  James 
Main  Dixon,  Professor  of  Literature  in  the  University  of 
Southern  California,  for  advice  as  to  modern  usage  and 
the  historical  phases  of  sentence  elements,  and  for  assist- 
ance in  reading  the  proofs. 

HOWARD  LESLIE  LUNT. 

Los  Angeles,  California 
June  9,  1919. 


CONTENTS 

PART  ONE 
PRINCIPLES  OF  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

CHAPTER  I.     THE  ELEMENTS  OF  SENTENCE  STRUCTURE. 

Single  Words,  Phrases,  Clauses 1 

Single  Words  as  Parts  of  Speech _ 2 

Word-groups  as  Phrases „.  3 

Word-groups   as   Clauses - 4 

Word-groups  as  Sentences 4 

Forms  of  Sentence  Structure 4 

The  Three  Fundamental  Types _ 5 

Models  of  Oral  Analysis 6 

Models  of  Written  Analysis 9 

Elements  of  the  Sentence _ 11 

Modifiers:    Kind  and  Function 11 

Symbols  for  Written  Analysis , 10, 12 

Examples  of  Modifications 14 

Written  Analysis:    Model  Sentences _.  15 

The   Complex   Sentence 15 

The  Sentence  Symbolized 17 

Notes,  Principles,  Definitions 17 

CHAPTER  II.  THE  PREDICATE  OF  THE  SENTENCE. 

Transitive  Verbs  with  Object  Complement 20 

Intransitive  Verb  "To  Be"  with  Subjective  Complement....  21 

Copulative  Verbs  with  Subjective  Complement 21 

Passive  Verbs  with  Subjective  Complement 22 

Transitive  Verbs  with  Objective  Complement 22 

Passive  Constructions _ 23 

Function  of  the  Passive  Voice „.  25 

Passive  Verbs  with  ''Retained  Object" 25 

Infinitives,  Participles,  and  Gerunds 26 


viii  CONTENTS 

Comparative  View  of  Verbals  in  -ing 31 

Auxiliary  Verbs - 33 

Notes,   Principles,   Definitions 33 

CHAPTEE  III.    THE  FUNCTION  OF  THE  PAETS  OF  SPEECH. 

Nouns,  Verbs,  Adjectives,  Adverbs 37 

The  Connectives:    Prepositions  and  Conjunctions 45 

Interjections  ~ 48 

Notes,  Principles,  Definitions 44,  48,  52 

CHAPTEE  IV.     EQUIVALENTS  OF  THE  PAETS  OF  SPEECH. 

Noun-Equivalents    54 

Adjective-Equivalents    65 

Adverb-Equivalents    56 

Notes,  Principles,   Definitions 57 

Equivalent    Connectives 59 

Sentence-Equivalents  59 

CHAPTEE  V.    IDIOMATIC  CONSTBUCTIONS. 

Comparative    Constructions 61 

Constructions  with  "It" 66 

Independent  Constructions „.  68 

Negative    Constructions 69 

Quotations  as  Object  Complement 71 

Indirect    Narration 72 

The  Impersonal  Verb 74 

CHAPTEE  VI.    SPECIAL  WOED-CONSTEUCTIONS 76 

Works  of  Beference....  91 


PART  TWO 
LESSONS  IN  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

INTEODUCTOBY:    EULES,  PEINCIPLES,  DEFINITIONS..  93 

Lesson     1:     Model  of  Oral  and  Written  Analysis 100 

Lesson     2:     Simple  and  Complex  Sentences 101 

Lesson     3:     Simple  and  Complex  Sentences _ 101 

Lesson     4:     Phrases  as  Equivalents _ 103 


CONTENTS 


IX 


Lesson     5:     The  Complex   Sentence 103 

Lesson     6:     The  Passive  Voice 104 

Lesson     7:     Infinitive  Clauses  and  Adverbials 105 

Lesson     8:     The  Appositive  Construction 106 

Lesson     9:     Special    Adverbial    Constructions 107 

Lesson  10:     Expletives  and  Adverbials 107 

Lesson  11:     Expletives  and  Adverbials 108 

Lesson  12:     Comparative  Constructions  with  ''Than" 109 

Lesson  13.  Comparative    Constructions    with    "As"    and 

' '  So  " - 110 

Lesson  14:  Constructions  with  "As,"  "So,"  "Such"....  Ill 

Lesson  15:     Miscellaneous    Sentences 112 

Lesson  16:     Verbals  in  -ing „.  113 

Lesson  17:     Adverbial   Modifications   114 

Lesson  18:     Miscellaneous  Sentences  and  Extracts 114 

Lesson  19:     Selected  Sentences  and  Extracts 115 

Lesson  20:     Miscellaneous   Sentences 116 

Lesson  21:     Typical  Forms  of  Quotations 117 

Lesson  22:     Addison's  Sir  Eoger  de  Coverley 118 

Lesson  23:     "My  Own  Shepherd".     Jowett 119 

Lesson  24:     "The  Euling  Passion".     Van  Dyke 120 

Lesson  25:  "  Walter  Bagehot,  a  Literary  Banker  ".   Bowen  121 

Lesson  26:     "Origins  of  Poetry".     Eastman 122 

Lesson  27:     Miscellaneous   Extracts 122 

Lesson  28:     Selected  Sentences  and  Extracts 123 

Lesson  29:     Selected  Extracts.     Ferrero,  et  al 124 

Lesson  30:  "National  Honor  and  Democracy".    Dixon....  125 


PRACTICAL  STUDIES 

in 

SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 


SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

PART  ONE 
PRINCIPLES  OF  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

CHAPTER  I 

THE  ELEMENTS  OF  SENTENCE  STRUCTURE 

1.  The  units  of  verbal  expression  are:    Single  word, 
Phrase,   Clause,   Sentence,   Paragraph,   the   Whole   Dis- 
course.    Of  these  only  Single  words,  Phrases,  Clauses, 
and  Sentences  form  the  subject-matter  for  grammatical 
study  and  analysis. 

2.  As  the  Sentence  is  the  principal  unit  of  thought  in 
the  construction  of  a  paragraph,  so  the  Paragraph  is  the 
special  rhetorical  unit  in  the  construction  of  the  Whole 
Discourse. 

3.  Tabular  view  of  the  verbal  units : 

1.  Discourse:  connected  narrative  for  developing 

a  theme. 

2.  Paragraph :  the  unit  of  discourse. 

3.  Sentence .-  chief  word-group,  or  unit  of  thought. 

4.  Clause :   major  word-group   within  a  sentence 

having  the  form  of  a  sentence  but  the  function 
of  a  single  word. 

5.  Phrase :  minor  word-group  having  the  function 

of  a  single  word. 

6.  Single  word:  the  fundamental  unit  of  verbal 

constructions. 

4.  Examples  of  the  four  basic  units: 


2 '  '  ' :  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

In  the  following  examples  all  Single  words  have  been 
put  in  bold  type,  Phrases  placed  within  parentheses,  and 
Clauses  within  brackets. 

Single  Words 

1.  Birds  fly. 

2.  The  boy  studied  his  lessons  diligently. 

3.  The  green  hills  are  beautiful. 

4.  Seeing  is  believing. 

5.  To  be  or  not  to  be  is  the  question. 

Phrases 

1.  The  boy  (in  the  boat)  threw  his  line  (into  the  water.) 

2.  That  man  (with  the  fast  horse)  (might  have  been)  rich. 

3.  Little  children  like  (to  play  games.) 

4.  Small  boys  enjoy  (selling  papers)  (on  the  street.) 

Glauses 

1.  I  do  not  know  [where  he  went.] 

2.  [When  we  were  (in  Rome)  ]  we  saw  the  king. 

3.  The   travelers   remained   indoors    [until   the   storm 

ceased.  ] 

4.  The  man  [who  is  honest]  is  sure  to  succeed. 

5.  It  seems  certain  [that  he  (has  been  elected).] 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  UNITS  OF  EXPRESSION 

The  units  of  verbal  expression, — Single  words,  Phrases, 
Clauses,  and  Sentences, — may  be  divided  according  to 
their  structure,  composition,  or  use  into  the  following 
classes,  or  categories : 

Single  Words  as  Parts  of  Speech 

1.  Noun :  Name  of  anything  (Latin,  nomen,  a  name) ; 
a  name-word. 

2.  Pronoun:    Substitute  for  a  noun  (Latin,  pro,  for, 
and  nomen,  a  name). 


ELEMENTS  OF  SENTENCE  STRUCTURE         3 

3.  Adjective:   Adjunct  of  a  noun  (Latin,  adjectivus, 
joined  to). 

4.  Verb :  Life-giving  word  (Latin,  verbum,  the  word) ; 
an  action-word. 

5.  Adverb :   Adjunct   of  a  verb    (Latin,   ad,   to,   and 
verbum,  the  word). 

6.  Preposition :   Relational  word  (Latin,  prae,  before, 
and  positus,  placed). 

7.  Conjunction:     Connecting    word    (Latin,    con,    to- 
gether, and  junctus,  joined). 

8.  Interjection:    Emotional    word    (Latin,  inter,  be- 
tween, and  jectus,  thrown). 

Word-Groups  as  Phrases 

Phrases  as  grammatical  unts  are  organized,  for  the 
most  part,  and  used  in  connection  with  prepositions  and 
conjunctions,  finite  verbs,  the  infinitive  of  verbs,  partici- 
ples and  gerunds.  They  may  be  called  preposition-group, 
infinitive-group,  participle-group,  gerund-group,  verb- 
phrase. 

Examples 

1.  Preposition:  (in  the  house),  (against  the  wall),  (on 
the  way). 

2.  Infinitive:    (to    sing   songs),    (to   be   angry),    (to 
become  rich). 

3.  Participle,  or  Gerund:  (telling  stories),  (our  being 
enemies),  (seeming  unfair),  (seeing  me)  he  turned  away. 

4.  Verb:  (will  go),  (should  have  gone),  (might  have 
been  seen). 

5.  Phrase-participles:  (having  looked),  (having  been 
advised). 

6.  Predicate-phrases:   (1)   hit  the  ball,   (2)   is  white, 
(3)   became  calm,   (4)   made  it  white,   (5)  painted  the 
house  red. 


4  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

7.  Adverb-phrases:   (as  usual),  (not  at  all),   (by  and 
by),  (now  and  then),  (again  and  again). 

8.  Phrase-prepositions^  (on  account  of),  (in  spite  of), 
(with  reference  to),  (in  accordance  with). 

9.  Phrase-conjunctions:  (as  if),  (in  order  that),  (inas- 
much as). 

10.  Phrase-introductions    to    quotations:    "  (declared 
he")>  ("to  quote  from  Macaulay"). 

Word-Groups  as  Clauses 

As  compared  with  the  sentence,  the  clause  may  be  said 
to  be  a  Major  Word-group  within  the  sentence,  having 
the  form  of  a  sentence  and  the  function  of  a  single  word 
element.  There  are  three  principal  classes: 

Noun-clauses:  I  know  [who  you  are].  [That  you  do 
not  play  fair]  is  clear.  My  hope  is  [that  you  will  be  just] . 

Adjective-clauses :  This  is  the  house  [that  Jack  built] . 
Have  you  seen  the  spot  [where  he  fell]  ? 

Adverb-clauses :  We  saw  the  man  [when  he  entered  the 
train].  [Wherever  he  went]  he  was  welcome. 

Word-Groups  as  Sentences 

Language  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  social  instrument.  Its 
logical  units  of  expression  are  sentences,  whose  chief 
functions  are  to  ask  for  or  to  give  information.  The 
degree  of  emotion  accompanying  their  expression  varies 
according  to  the  occasion  and  purpose  under  which  they 
were  uttered.  Grammar  treats  of  four  kinds  of  sentences : 

Declarative :   Thomas  left  the  room. 

Interrogative:   Did  Thomas  leave  the  room? 

Imperative:   Thomas,  leave  the  room! 

Exclamatory :  How  pale  Thomas  looks ! 

FORMS  OF  SENTENCE  STRUCTURE 

The  structural  form  of  a  sentence  depends,  aside  from 
its  word-order,  upon  the  kinds  of  units  of  expression  that 


ELEMENTS  OF  SENTENCE  STRUCTURE         5 

enter  into  its  make  up.  An  organization  of  single  words 
and  phrases  only  into  a  sentence  results  in  one  charac- 
teristic form;  that  of  single  words,  phrases,  and  clauses 
results  in  another.  There  are  four  varieties  of  structure : 

Simple  sentences :  The  weather  is  warm.  The  flowers 
will  bloom. 

Compound  sentences :  The  weather  is  warm  and  the 
flowers  will  bloom. 

Complex  sentences:  The  flowers  will  bloom  [if  the 
weather  is  warm]. 

Compound  complex  sentences :  A  man  [who  is  honest] 
will  be  respected,  and,  [though  he  be  poor],  will  possess 
a  clear  conscience. 

SENTENCES 

The  Three  Fundamental  Types 

A  typical  sentence  represents  an  act  of  the  judgment, 
and  implies  that  a  real  relation  exists  between  an  idea 
called  a  Subject  and  a  second  idea  called  the  Predicate. 
The  word  or  term  that  describes  this  combination  or 
relationship  is  Predication. 

Every  sentence,  typical  in  form,  may  be  divided  into 
two  par.ts:  (1)  the  Subject-matter,  and  (2)  the  Predicate- 
matter.  The  Subject-matter  or  material  consists  of  a 
Subject-word  together  with  its  modifiers,  if  any.  The 
Predicate-matter  or  material  consists  of  a  Predicate-verb 
together  with  its  modifiers,  if  any,  and  its  complement. 

The  Subject-word  when  deprived  of  its  modifiers  may 
be  called  the  Fundamental  or  Essential  Subject.  In  form 
the  Subject-word  may  be  a  Single  word,  a  Phrase,  or  a 
Clause. 

The  Fundamental  Predicate  consists  of  the  Predicate- 
verb,  deprived  of  its  modifiers,  if  any,  and  its  Subjective 
or  Object  Complement. 

Such  sentences,  having  been  analyzed  to  their  basic  or 
essential  parts,  may  be  called  Fundamental  Sentences. 


6  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

Of  these  there  are  but  three  types,  all  grounded  upon  the 
nature  of  the  Predicate-verb.  The  following  are  illus- 
trative examples: 

First  type  :  Birds  fly. 

Second  type:    Boys  sell  papers. 

Third  type:   Violets  are  blue. 

In  the  three  fundamental  type-sentences  the  subject- 
ideas  are,  in  form,  unmodified  Single  words  (names  of 
things  and  persons).  In  the  predicate  of  the  first  type, 
the  verb,  "fly"  represents  a  quality  or  characteristic  of 
the  subject,  "birds".  In  the  predicate  of  the  second  type 
the  verb,  "sell",  represents  action  (quality  of  the  subject) 
passing  from  (transitive)  the  subject,  "boys",  to  the 
object,  "papers".  Such  Predicate-verbs  are  said  to  be 
"transitive"  in  their  nature. 

The  completing  sentence-element,  "papers"  that  repre- 
sents the  object  receiving  the  action  may  be  called  the 
Object  Complement,  because  it  stands,  as  it  were,  apart 
from  the  subject,  "boys". 

In  the  predicate  of  the  third  type  the  verb,  "are",  does 
not  (intransitive)  represent  any  action  passing  from  the 
subject  to  an  object.  Such  Predicate- verbs  as  "are",  and 
"fly"  in  the  first  type,  are  said  to  be  "intransitive"  in 
their  nature. 

Models  of  Oral  Analysis 

At  the  outset  of  this  study  the  student  should  bear  in 
mind  that  there  is  a  distinction  between  the  subject  of 
thought  and  the  Subject-word  of  a  sentence.  For  example, 
in  the  statement  of  such  a  fact  as,  "A  fierce  gale  uprooted 
the  tree,"  the  subject  of  thought  is  an  overturned  tree, 
and  not  "a  fierce  gale".  The  gale  is  declared  to  be  the 
cause  of  the  tree's  overthrow, — a  new  situation  demand- 
ing an  explanation. 

The  first  thing  to  be  done  after  dividing  the  sentence 
into  its  two  grand  divisions, — Subject-matter  and  Predi- 
cate-matter— is  not  to  look  for  the  Subject-word  in  the 


ELEMENTS  OF  SENTENCE  STRUCTURE         7 

subject-material,  but  to  point  out  at  once  the  Predicate- 
verb  in  the  predicate-material,  which  is  the  relational  and 
the  asserting  word  between  the  Subject-matter  and  the 
Predicate-matter;  and  then  ask  Who?  and  What?  ques- 
tions about  it ;  as,  for  example,  in  the  three  type-sentences : 

1.  Who  or  what  flies  ?   Answer:  "  birds" Subject-word. 

2.  Who  sell  papers?     Answer:  "boys" Subject-word. 

3.  What  are  blue?        Answer:  "violets "..Subject-word. 
The  answer  to  these  two  questions  will  always  direct 

the  mind  to  the  Subject-word  of  the  sentence. 

The  oral  analysis  of  sentences  should  proceed  in  a  more 
or  less  formal  and  logical  way,  somewhat  as  follows: 

I.     First  type :   Birds  fly. 

A. 

In  the  simple  sentence:  Birds  fly,  "birds"  is  the 
Subject,  and  "fly"  is  the  Predicate,  because  a  particular 
action  is  asserted  by  the  verb,  "fly",  about  the  noun, 
"birds". 

B. 

' '  FLY  "  is  a  verb  and  asserts  the  action :  it  is,  therefore, 
the  Predicate-verb  of  the  sentence.  It  contains  within 
itself  a  quality  respecting  the  noun,  "birds",  and  is, 
therefore,  at  the  same  time  both  the  Predicate-verb  and 
the  Predicate-matter  of  the  sentence. 

C. 

"BIRDS"  is  a  noun,  and  answers  the  question,  What 
things  fly?  It  is,  therefore,  the  Subject-word  of  the 
sentence. 

II.    Second  type:    Boys  sell  papers. 

A. 

In  the  simple  sentence:  Boys  sell  papers,  "boys"  is 
the  Subject  and  "sell  papers"  is  the  Predicate,  because 
a  particular  action  and  relation  is  asserted  by  the  verb, 


8  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

"sell",  between  the  noun,  "boys"  and  another  noun, 
or  object,  "papers". 

B. 

"SELL"  is  a  verb,  and  asserts  the  action  that  passes 
over  from  one  thing  to  another  thing, — its  Object.  It  is, 
therefore,  the  Predicate-verb,  transitive,  of  the  sentence. 

C. 

"BOYS"  is  a  noun,  and  answers  the  question,  Who 
sells?  It  is,  therefore,  the  Subject-word  of  the  sentence. 

D. 

"PAPERS"  is  a  noun,  and  answers  the  question,  Boys 
sell  what?  It  is,  therefore,  the  Object  of  the  transitive 
verb,  "sell";  and,  by  completing  the  meaning  of  the 
sentence  is  an  Object  complement. 

III.    Third  type :  Violets  are  blue. 

A. 

In  the  simple  sentence:  Violets  are  blue,  '"violets"  is 
the  Subject,  and  "are  blue"  is  the  Predicate,  because  a 
definite  color-quality,  blue,  is  asserted  by  the  verb,  "are", 
of  the  noun,  "violets". 

B. 

"ARE"  is  a  verb,  and  asserts  the  relation  of  the  color, 
"blue",  as  a  fact  about  the  noun,  "violets".  It  is, 
therefore,  the  Predicate-verb,  intransitive,  of  the  sentence. 

C. 

"VIOLETS"  is  a  noun,  and  answers  the  question,  What 
are  blue?  It  is,  therefore,  the  Subject-word  of  the 
sentence. 

D. 

"BLUE"  is  the  name  of  a  color,  and  is  classified  as 
an  Adjective.  It  is  related  by  the  verb,  "are",  to  the 
Subject-word,  "violets",  and  answers  the  question, 
Violets  are  what?;  and  because  it  belongs  to  the  Subject 
and  completes  the  meaning  of  the  Predicate,  or  sentence, 
"blue"  is  a  Subjective  complement. 


ELEMENTS  OF  SENTENCE  STRUCTURE          9 

Models  of  Written  Analysis 

To  analyze  a  whole  thing,  large  or  small,  is  to  break 
it  up  into  its  natural,  constituent  elements,  each  part  by 
itself  constituting  a  unit-whole.  Analysis  is  one  of  the 
first  steps  to  be  taken  in  the  acquisition  of  knowledge. 
Like  a  process  in  rational  construction,  logical  analysis  of 
sentences  should  proceed  according  to  a  well-defined 
program.  The  following  formula,  therefore,  will  be  of 
use  as  a  guide  to  the  proper  steps  to  be  taken  in  sentence 
analysis : 

1.  Name  of  the  parts :  permanent,  identifying  terms. 

2.  Composition  or  description  of  the  parts :  character- 

istic features  and  qualities;  constituent  elements. 

3.  Function  of  the  parts :  their  power  to  be,  and  to  do 

something. 

4.  Classification    of    the    parts:    final    disposition    of 

knowledge. 

Every  sentence  that  is  complete  in  its  form  may  be 
divided  into  two  parts: 

1.  The  Subject. 

2.  The  Predicate. 

There  are  but  three  types  of  Fundamental  Sentences, 
of  which  the  following  are  examples: 

First  type  : 

Second  type :    Boys   |  sell    papers 


Third  type :      Violets    |  are    blue. 

"T"   ~3c~~ 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  Subject  of  each  of  these 
simple  sentences  is  a  single  word  unmodified  by  any  other 
word. 

In  the  Predicate  of  the  first  type  the  verb  alone  expresses 
the  whole  predicate  idea.  But  in  the  Predicate  of  the 
second  type  the  predicate  idea  is  expressed  by  two  words : 
the  verb  and  its  Object  complement ;  and  in  the  Predicate 


10  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

of  the  third  type  the  predicate  idea  is  expressed  by  the 
verb  and  the  Subjective  complement. 

All  sentences,  however  elaborated  by  means  of  modifiers, 
can  be  reduced  to  these  three  types,  in  which  the  unmodi- 
fied noun  or  noun-equivalent,  in  this  scheme  of  analysis, 
will  be  called  the  Subject-word,  and  the  asserting  verb 
will  be  called  the  Predicate-verb ;  the  complement  after 
the  transitive  verb  will  be  called  the  Object  complement ; 
the  complement  after  the  intransitive  verb  will  be  called 
the  Subjective  complement. 

The  written  symbols  used  to  represent  to  the  eye  the 
five  grammatical  elements  that  enter  into  the  sentence 
structure  of  the  fundamental  types  will  be  as  follows : 

Symbols  for  Written  Analysis 

Subject-word:        Single  word,  phrase,  clause 1 

[Transitive  2 

Predicate-verb :    -{ 

(intransitive  3 

fObject:    (with  transitive  verb) 2c 

Complement : 

[Subjective:  (with  intransitive  verb)..3c 

Model  Sentences 

First  type :        Birds    |  fly. 
~T~    "T" 
Second  type:     Boys    |  sell    papers. 

1          2  2c 

Third  type:       Violets    |  are     blue. 

1  3       3c 

The  frame  of  the  fundamental  sentence  will  always  take 
this  general,  abstract  form : 

Subject-word :     Predicate-verb :     Complement 
1  2  or  3  2c  or  3c 


ELEMENTS  OF  SENTENCE  STRUCTURE       11 

These  five  grammatical  elements  or  categories  are  prin- 
cipal and  coordinate  in  their  function  as  basic  and  con- 
stituent parts  of  the  sentence,  no  one  being  subordinate 
to  and  modifying  any  one  of  the  others. 

ELEMENTS  OF  THE  SENTENCE 

An  element  is  a  simple  part  of  a  complex  unit-whole. 

The  Sentence  elements,  or  units  of  expression,  are 
classified  according  to  their  grammatical  relation  in  the 
sentence  under  the  following  six  headings,  or  categories : 

(1)  Subject-words,  (2)  Predicate-verbs,  (3)  Verb-com- 
plements, (4)  Modifiers,  (5)  Connectives,  (6)  Independent 
Relations. 

A  sentence  may  or  may  not  have  all  these  relations 
represented  at  the  same  time  in  the  same  sentence.  The 
laws  of  thought  demand  that  at  least  two  of  them  shall 
appear  or  be  understood  in  every  sentence;  namely, 
the  Subject-word  and  a  Predicate-verb. 

Modifiers 

Modifiers  are  said  to  be  "literary  luxuries".  In  form 
a  modifier,  in  either  the  Subject  or  the  Predicate,  is  a 
single  word,  a  phrase,  or  a  clause. 

A  modification  is  a  relation  that  exists  between  two 
grammatical  elements;  as,  a  Noun  and  its  Adjective,  or 
a  Verb  and  its  Adverb. 

There  are  but  two  classes  of  Modifiers :  (1)  Adjectival, 
belonging  to  a  noun  or  pronoun,  and  (2)  Adverbial, 
belonging  to  a  verb. 

Function  of  Modifiers 

Adjectival:  All  single  words,  phrases,  and  clauses 
that  relate  to  nouns  and  pronouns  are  said  to  modify,  or 
qualify  the  meaning  of  the  nouns  to  which  they  belong. 
They  are,  therefore,  classed  as  Adjectives  or  Adjectival 
Modifiers. 


12  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

Adverbial:  All  single  words,  phrases  and  clauses 
that  relate  to  verbs,  adverbs,  adjectives,  and  participles 
are  said  to  modify  the  meaning  of  the  words  to  which 
they  belong.  They  are,  therefore,  classed  as  Adverbs  or 
Adverbial  Modifiers. 

Visual  Analysis  of  the  Sentence 

This  scheme  of  visual  analysis  makes  use  of  the  fewest 
possible  arbitrary  and  abstract  symbols  for  representing 
to  the  eye  the  chief  grammatical  relations  that  may  exist 
in  a  group  of  normal  English  sentences. 

The  underscore  means  a  single  word  unit,  a  parenthesis 
encloses  a  phrase-unit,  brackets  surround  a  clause-unit. 

The  relations  of  the  various  sentence-elements  of 
structure,  principal  and  modifying,  together  with  the 
connective  particles,  will  be  designated  by  the  following 
system  of  symbols: 

Symbols  for  Written  Analysis 

Subject-words:  single  word,  phrase,  clause 1 

fVerb,  transitive 2 

Predicate-verbs:  ] 

[Verb,   intransitive 3 

fObject  (with  transitive  verb) 2c 

Complements :       \ 

[Subjective  (with  intransitive  verb)..3c 

fAdjective  or  Adjectival 4 

Modifiers : 

[Adverb  or  Adverbial 5 

[Coordinate,  or  Coordinating -f~ 

Connectives : 

[Subordinate,  or  Subordinating ± 

Independent  relations 0 


ELEMENTS  OF  SENTENCE  STRUCTURE       13 

Secondary  or  Modified  Symbols 

Subject-word  (Objective,  or  Accusative  Case) 1" 

Predicate-verb  (Infinitives  and  Participles)  : 

Transitive  2" 

Intransitive   3" 

Objective   Complement 2c" 

Objective-Subjective  Complement 2c"-3c" 

Phrase-modifying  Adverb Ph-5 

Sentence-modifying  Adverb . Sent-5 

Predicate-modifying  Adverb Pred-5 

Auxiliary  verbs  (detached  from  main  verb) 2-,  3- 

It,  as  formal  Subject  or  Object (1)  or  (2c) 

Correlative  Connectives x'-x" 

Illustrative  Examples 

1.  I    I  know 

2c  2c 

2.  You    certainly    |  knew     ("when    I    went    away. 


[when    I    went    away.  "I 
__.    _       _    _      j 


1  Sent-5  2 

2c  2c 

3.  He   |  was  wealthy    (at  one  time). 

1         3c  3c  Pred-5 

4.  The  stranger    |  was   now   plainly    (in  view). 

~~1  ~~3 Pred-5       Ph-5  3c 

5.  Did   you   ever   |  see   a  meteor  ? 

6.  It    |  is   a  fact    I" that   I   |  lost  my  watch  yesterday."! 

00       3        3cT      ~±T"  T       2~  IT      2c  5  J 

l  l 

7.  Either   you   or   I    |  will  have    (to  do  the  work). 

x'        "T"  P"  T  "    "~~2~"  2c 

8.  There  [is  a  bird  (in  the  tree)  and  one  (on  the  fence). 

T       l  3c  +1  3c 


14  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

9.     (You)  "Come    and   trip    it       [  as   you    go."] 

5~  5 

Examples  of  Modification 

I.  Adjectival  Modifiers 

1.  Combination  of  Noun  and  Adjective: 

A  wise    man. 
4 

2.  Combination  of  Noun  and  Phrase : 

A  man    (of  wisdom). 

4 

3.  Combination  of  Noun  and  Clause: 

A  man    [who  is  wise]. 
4  4 

II.  Adverbial  Modifiers 

1.  Combination  of  Verb  and  Adverb : 

The  boy  ran  swiftly. 
5 

2.  Combination  of  Verb  and  Phrase: 

A  fire  is  burning    (in  the  grate). 

5 

3.  Combination  of  Verb  and  Clause: 

May  we  go    [where  you  live]  ? 
—  — 

It  should  be  noted  that  the  complements, — Subjective 
and  Object, — are  coordinate  with  the  Subject-word  and 
the  Predicate- verb,  and  are  not  to  be  regarded  as  Modi- 
fiers, though  logically  the  Subjective  complement  is  as 
much  an  attribute  of  the  Noun-subject  as  is  the  Predicate- 
verb,  which  is  never  classed  as  a  Modifier. 

Nor  is  it  wise,  in  this  system  of  written  analysis,  to 
keep  taking  account  of  the  often  repeated  limiting  par- 
ticles, "a,"  "an,"  and  "the,"  as  Adjective  Modifiers. 


ELEMENTS  OF  SENTENCE  STRUCTURE       15 
WRITTEN  ANALYSIS 

Model  Sentences 

A. 

1.  Constant    boasting    always     |  betrays    incapacity. 

4152  2c 

2.  The   green    hills    |  are    very    beautiful. 

___          ___    __    __,  3c 

B. 

3.  The  light    (of  the  moon)   greatly    |  assisted    us. 

~T~  4  ~~  5~~  2  ~2e 

4.  The  reckless  driver  [drove  swiftly  (around  the  corner). 

4  ~T~     "IT"     ~~5~"~  5 

5.  James  and  John  |  studied  together   (out  of  the  same 

"~T"~    ~+        l~~      ~~F~  5  5 

book). 

C. 

6.  The  man    I"  who      speaks    falsely"       is    unwise. 


an    I"  who    |  speaks    falsely"] 
~ 


4  4 

7.  The  soldiers  | stopped  ["where  night  [overtook  them. 

5~~ 

8.  TWhen   the  officers   |  arrived"]    the  thief   |  had  gone. 

5 

THE  COMPLEX  SENTENCE 

Sentences  are  usually  classed  in  three  divisions: 
Simple,  Compound  and  Complex. 

A  Simple  sentence  is  one  that  consists  of  one  Subject 
united  by  a  finite  verb  to  one  Predicate,  thus  forming 
a  single  assertion  or  proposition. 

A  Compound  sentence  is  one  that  consists  of  two  or 
more  simple  sentences  united  by  a  coordinate  conjunction. 


16  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

A  Complex  sentence  is  one  containing  a  dependent 
sentence,  or  clause  that  functions  either  as  a  principal  or 
modifying  sentence-element.  Only  the  Noun-clause  can 
be  used  as  a  principal  sentence-element,  of  which  the 
following  sentences  are  examples: 

Illustrative  Examples 

1.  ["That    the   earth    |  is    round"!     |  has  been  proved. 

L~l  1  ~T"       3c    J  3 

i  1 

2.  I     |  know     ["what    you     |want.l 

T          2 L  "2c~~    ~T~          2 J 
2c 

3.  The   fact    |  is     ["you    |  are    unhappy.! 

~ "3      L—        3-          3c        ; 
3c  .  3c 

4.  ["What    you    want!     |  is     ["what    I    |  want. 

L      2c         "T~  2~"J      "3        L^~~   T         2 

1  1  3c  3c 

CLAUSES  AS  MODIFYING  SENTENCE-ELEMENTS 

Ad  j  ective-clauses 

This     |  is     the    house     Fthat     Jack     |  built. 

~~T"    "T  "3^  "-±2^    "T"         2 

4  4 

Today    the  men    found    the  spot     F where    he    |  fell."! 
5  T~~  2  2c  L~TS      "I"    "3      J 

4  4 

Ad  verb- clauses 

We    |  saw    the  men    ["when    they    |  entered    the  train.  1 

"T"         2~"  2c  L    ±5       1  2  2c 

5  5 

[Wherever    he    went!     he    |  was    welcome. 
"      ±5  "T     "~3~    J     "T  3"  3c 

5  5 


ELEMENTS  OF  SENTENCE  STRUCTURE        17 
THE  SENTENCE  SYMBOLIZED 

Fundamental  (bare)  Form 

Principal  Elements: 

Subject-word ;    Predicate-verb ;    Complement. 

1 2  or  3 2c  or  3c 

Elaborated  (full)  Form 
Principal  Elements  plus  Modifying  Elements : 

Subject-word :    Predicate-verb :    Complement. 

1 2  or  3  2c  or  3c 

Adjective  Adverb     Adjective  or  Adverb 

T~  ~1T~  4  5 

NOTES  —  PRINCIPLES  —  DEFINITIONS 

' '  A  sentence  is  a  related  group  of  words,  containing  a  subject 
and  predicate  with  their  modifiers,  and  expressing  a  complete 
thought."— Standard  Diet. 

"A  group  of  words  expressing  a  statement,  command,  or 
question,  is  called  a  sentence. " — Abbott. 

"A  sentence  is  a  number  of  words  arranged  in  due  order, 
forming  a  complete  proposition,  or  such  an  arrangement  of  words 
as  asserts  a  fact." — Professor  York. 

"When  a  group  of  words  makes  complete  sense,  it  is  called  a 
sentence." — J.  M.  D.  Meiklejohn. 

"A  sentence  is  a  group  of  words,  or  in  some  cases  a  single 
word  which  makes  either  a  Statement,  a  Command,  a  Wish,  a 
Question,  or  an  Exclamation." — Onions. 

A  sentence  is  the  principal  unit  of  verbal  expression 
having  a  Subject-word  and  a  Predicate-verb  —  either 
expressed  or  understood. 

The  following  is  rather  a  psychological  than  a  gram- 
matical definition: 

H.  Paul  defines  a  sentence  as  "the  linguistic  expression 
or  symbol  for  the  fact  that  two  or  more  ideas  unite  in 
the  mind  of  the  speaker;  and  the  medium  for  bringing 
about  the  same  union  of  ideas  in  the  mind  of  the  hearer." 
—Quoted  by  Sheffield. 


18  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

It  seems  quite  evident  that  a  word  or  a  word-group 
may  be  a  " sentence  in  thought"  but  not  one  in  form.  On 
this  point  Sheffield  makes  the  following  observations: 

"So  much  may  be  true  of  the  sentence  in  thought,  and 
yet  there  remains  a  question  as  to  what  makes  a  sentence 
in  words.  In  conversation,  of  course,  words  are  helped 
out  by  looks,  tones,  gestures,  so  that  sentences  need  be 
verbal  only  so  far  as  their  constituent  ideas  do  not  get 
expression  otherwise.  Indeed  a  sentence  may  always  be 
short  of  words  where  its  ideas  are  sufficiently  evident 
from  the  context.  The  sentence-thought  is  here  complete, 
but  its  expression  is  scant.  What  we  then  have  is  a  word 
or  phrase  with  the  value  of  a  sentence.  Such  words  and 
phrases  appear  to  be  of  three  classes: 

1.  Predicates : 

An  exclamation  like  shame !,  how  true !,  good !,  is  really 
a  predicate,  -having  as  subject  what  is  simply  accepted  by 
speaker  and  hearer  as  present  to  the  mind.  Such  exclam- 
atory words,  which  are  traditionally  classed  as  Interjec- 
tions, would  be  better  called  sentence-words.  So  also  are 
imperatives  (look!  look!)  and  any  words  that  answer  a 
given  "part-question";  thus, 

Who  killed  Cock  Robin?    I! 

When  was  Milton  bora?    In  1608. 

2.  Fact- words : 

Yes,  no,  and  their  equivalents — certainly,  not  at  all, 
etc. — presuppose  the  complete  content  of  a  sentence  aa 
given,  but  without  its  reference  to  fact. 

3.    Parallels : 

Sentence-equivalents  such  as  much  cry — little  wool; 
borrow,  sorrow,  seem  different  from  other  sentence-phrases 
in  that  their  unexpressed  parts  need  not  be  given  in  the 
context.  In  their  character  as  proverbs,  however,  they 


ELEMENTS  OF  SENTENCE  STRUCTURE        19 

assume  a  background  of  common  experience  that  amounts 
to  a  permanent  social  context." 

Language  is  the  medium  or  instrument  by  which  com- 
munication between  mind  and  mind  is  made  possible.  The 
sentence  is  said  to  be  the  form  in  which  "a  unit  of 
experience"  is  embodied,  so  that  it  may  be  conveyed  as 
a  thought  from  one  person  to  another.  Primarily  sen- 
tences are  for  two  purposes:  (1)  to  ask  for  information, 
and  (2)  to  give  information. 

Our  experiences  must  ever  be  dealing  with  reality  in 
its  two  most  general  features :  things  and  their  relations. 
Things,  including  persons,  are  for  subjects  of  sentences, 
and  relations  for  predicates.  Things  are  given,  or  pre- 
sented to  the  mind  for  investigation,  and,  to  that  extent, 
are  fixed  and  certain ;  that  which  is  unknown  or  uncertain 
is  the  relations  or  meanings  of  things.  Therefore  our 
knowledge  or  belief  is  said  to  be  embodied  in  the  predi- 
cates of  sentences. 

Every  sentence  expresses  a  judgment,  that  is,  a  predica- 
tion. ''All  predication  is  a  comparison,  and  a  comparison 
is  finding  the  relation  of  one  thing  to  another."  In  his 
"Psychology  of  Reasoning"  Pillsbury  defines  judgment 
as  "the  ascription  of  meaning  to  the  presented". 

The  principal  attributes  of  reality  may  be  summarized 
under  the  following  relations:  Substance;  Quality; 
Space  (here  and  there) ;  Time  (now  and  then) ;  Form; 
Magnitude  (number,  quantity,  extent) ;  Cause  (force, 
power,  or  function). 


20  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 


CHAPTER  II. 

THE  PREDICATE  OF  THE  SENTENCE 

FORMS  OF  THE  PREDICATE 

Under  this  head  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  cite 
typical  examples  of  predicates,  constructed  upon  the 
following  dominant,  predicative  features:  (1)  Transitive 
verb,  (2)  Intransitive  verb,  (3)  Passive  verb,  that  is, 
transitive  verb  in  the  Passive  Voice. 

Transitive  Verb  with  its  Object  Complement 

A.     Single  word  as  Object  Complement: 
1.     Noun  :    Josephus  wrote  a  history. 


2.  Pronoun:    We  admire 

3.  Adjective  :    One  should  pity  the  poor. 

4.  Infinitive:     Children  love  to  play. 

5.  Gerund:    We  enjoy  bowling. 

B.  Phrase  as  Object  Complement: 

6.  Infinitive  :    We  hope  (to  see  him  soon)  . 

7.  Gerund  :    I  have  finished  (reading  the  book)  . 

C.  Clause  as  Object  Complement  : 

8.  We  heard  [that  he  had  arrived]. 

9.  I  know  [why  he  did  not  go]. 

10.  They  thought  [that  he  would  fail]. 

D.  Sentence  (quoted)  as  Object  Complement: 

11.  He  said  quietly:    ["Show  me  your  receipt  "] 

12.  And  they  all  exclaimed  :  ['  '  Long  live  the  king  ' 


PREDICATE  OF  THE  SENTENCE  21 

Intransitive  Verb  "To  Be"  with  its  Subjective 
Complement 

A.  Single  word  as  Subjective  Complement: 

1.  Noun:   They  are  friends. 

2.  Pronoun :    It  is  I;  It  is  she;  It  is  they. 

3.  Adjective :    The  day  is  bright  and  warm. 

4.  Adverb :    One  tree  is  here  and  one  is  there. 

5.  Infinitive:    My  pleasure  was  to  go. 

6.  Participle:    Socrates  was  speaking;  The  sun  is 

shining. 

B.  Phrase  as  Subjective  Complement: 

7.  Preposition:    Iron  is  (of  great  use). 

8.  Infinitive :  His  one  aim  was  (to  know  the  truth) . 

9.  Gerund:     My  chief  delight  is    (reading  good 

books). 

C.  Clause  as  Subjective  Complement: 

10.  The  purse  is  [where  you  left  it] . 

11.  One  should  be  [what  nature  designed  one  to  be]. 

D.  Sentence  as  Subjective  Complement: 

12.  The  question  is  [why  men  will  cheat]. 

13.  The  fact  is  [John  will  not  return  to  school]. 

14.  Pilate's  question  was,  "What  is  truth?" 

15.  My  answer  is,  "You  should  try  again". 

Copulative  Verbs  with  Subjective  Complement 

The  following  sentences  exhibit  a  few  of  the  verbs  that 
perform  the  function  of  the  copula  while  having  at  the 
same  time  an  attributive  idea: 

1.  Though  human  he  seemed  a  monster. 

2.  At  the  last  he  became  a  hero. 

3.  He  lived  an  apostle  and  died  a  martyr. 

4.  Today  the  sky  appears  dull  and  cloudy. 

5.  Those  berries  look  sweet  but  taste  sour. 

6.  Children  grow  weary  with  playing. 

7.  Some  of  our  so-called  friends  proved  false. 


22  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

The  student  can  easily  construct  for  himself  sentences 
based  upon  the  following  copulative  verbs  and  Subjective 
complements:  continue  faithful;  remain  firm;  wax  old; 
come  true ;  feel  warm ;  keep  well ;  look  pale ;  get  rested ; 
turn  traitor;  sit  silent;  run  wild. 

Passive  Verbs  with  Subjective  Complement 

The  passive  forms  of  the  transitive  verbs :  call,  make, 
name,  choose,  elect,  think,  believe,  suppose,  deem,  appoint, 
create,  consider,  regard,  etc.,  are  copulative  in  their 
function  and  are  followed  by  the  Subjective  complement. 
This  is  also  true  of  the  active  forms. 

1.  Woodrow  Wilson  was  elected  president. 

2.  Abraham  was  called  the  friend  of  God. 

3.  The  child  was  named  Mary. 

4.  He  was  considered  an  honest  man. 

5.  .Romulus  was  made  king. 

6.  He  was  appointed  chairman. 

Transitive  Verbs  with  Objective  Complement 

Thus  far  we  have  considered  predicates  made  up  of 
(1)  the  transitive  verb  and  an  Object  complement,  (2)  the 
intransitive  verb,  the  copulative  verb,  or  the  passive  verb, 
and  a  Subjective  complement, — that  is,  a  predicate  noun, 
a  predicate  adjective,  or  a  predicate  pronoun  referring  to 
the  Subject  of  the  sentence. 

We  now  have  to  illustrate  a  predicate  that  is  more 
complex  in  its  nature, — a  predicate  that  consists  of  a 
transitive  verb  with  its  Object  complement  and  a  predi- 
cate noun  or  a  predicate  adjective  that  refers  to  that 
object.  In  such  a  sentence  structure  the  noun  or 
adjective  predicated  of  the  Object  is  called  an  Objective 
complement. 

This  construction  is  variously  described  in  grammars 
under  such  terms  as,  "the  predicate  objective,"  "the 
complementary  object,"  "the  objective  attribute,"  "the 
objective  supplement  of  the  verb, "  "  adjunct  accusative ' '. 


PREDICATE  OF  THE  SENTENCE  23 

The  verbs  that  govern  this  mode  of  speech  are  those 
denoting  to  choose,  make,  call,  name,  think,  show,  etc. 
They  require  after  them,  besides  the  direct  Object,  a  noun 
or  an  adjective  referring  to  that  object;  as,  They  chose 
him  captain.  They  call  me  fortunate.  We  shall  paint  the 
house  white.  They  made  the  log  a  boat. 
The  written  analysis  is  as  follows: 

They     |  chose    him    captain. 

~T~~          2        ~2e"     ~~Wr~ 

They    |  call    me      fortunate. 

~T~     ~~2~"    "2c"  2c" 

We     |  shall   paint    the   house    white. 

They    |  made    the  log    a  boat. 

"~T~"      ~~1T~          2c  2c" 

Note. — "In  such  combinations  the  first  noun-word  after  the 
transitive  verb  is  its  direct  object,  and  the  second  noun-word 
is  a  complement  to  the  other  one." — H.  Sweet. 

Passive  Constructions 

In  dealing  with  the  Passive  Voice  we  shall  be  guided 
in  our  analysis  of  the  sentence  into  its  grammatical 
elements  with  the  classification  of  their  functions,  by  the 
following  principles: 

1.  Only  transitive  verbs  have  both  Active  and  Passive 
forms. 

2.  The  peculiar  sign  of  the  Passive  Voice  is  the  past 
participle  of  the  verb  joined  with  some  form  of  the  copula 
verb  to  be,  the  combination  making  a  verb-phrase. 

3.  A  transitive  verb  in  the  Passive  Voice  cannot  take 
an  object,  i.  e.,  an  Object-complement.    In  He  was  given 
a  book,  "book"  is  often  called  the  "retained  object". 

4.  The  grammatical  element  that  completes  the  mean- 
ing of  such  passive  forms  of  the  verb  must  be  either  a 
Subjective  Complement  or  an  Adverbial  Modifier. 

5.  This  use  differs  from  that  of  the  various  forms  of 
the  copula,  to  be,  in  that  they  can  be  modified, — that  is, 


24  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

changed  in  their  meaning  or  idea, — by  an  adverb  or  an 
Adverbial  Modifier. 

Whatever  element  is  used  with  the  forms  of  the  copu- 
lative verb,  to  be,  to  complete  the  meaning  of  the  sentence, 
is  always  a  Subjective  complement,  and  never  an 
Adverbial  Modifier. 

6.  By  way  of  comparison  we  may  say  that  the  verb 
in  the  Active  Voice  points  to  action  against  an  Object, 
as  the  recipient;  while  the  verb  in  the  Passive  Voice 
signifies  the  direction  of  an  action  against  the  passive, 
or  non-acting  Subject. 

7.  The  following  diagram  will  serve  to  indicate  to  the 
eye  the  grammatical  idea  of  Voice,  as  applied  to  transitive 
verbs : 

I.     Active  Voice  (direct  action) : 
John  (agent) hit >  the  ball  (recipient). 

II.    Passive  Voice  (reverse  action) : 
The  ball  (recipient)   < was  hit by  John  (agent). 

8.  Some  intransitive  verbs  become  transitive  by  the 
addition  of  a  " fixed  preposition".     Such  verbs  are  to 
be  dealt  with  as  simple  verbs.     The  following  examples 
will  illustrate  the  usage: 

Intransitive  Transitive 

to  speak  to  speak  to 

to  laugh  to  laugh  at 

to  wonder  to  wonder  at 

to  talk  to  talk  of 

Passive  Forms 

1.  King  Arthur's  death  was  talked  of. 

2.  His  brave  deeds  are  wondered  at  by  every  one. 

3.  He  was  laughed  at  by  all  the  children. 

4.  I  was  spoken  to  about  the  matter. 


PREDICATE  OF  THE  SENTENCE  25 

Note. — "When  the  combination  of  an  intransitive  verb," 
says  Sweet,  "is  logically  equivalent  to  a  transitive  verb,  we  call 
the  combination  a  group-verb." 

Function  of  the  Passive  Voice 
The  passive  voice  is  used  with  the  following  purposes: 

1.  To  conceal  the  identity  of  the  actor. 

2.  To  keep  as  the  subject  of  the  sentence  the  principal 
subject  of  the  discourse. 

3.  To  break  the  monotony  of  the  subject-object  style 
of  sentence. 

It  is  more  interesting  to  read: 

1  'Caesar  crossed  the  Rubicon." 
"He  was  stabbed  by  Brutus." 
than: 

"The  Rubicon  was  crossed  by  Caesar." 
"Brutus  stabbed  Caesar." 

It  is  said  that  children  rarely  use  the  passive  con- 
struction. 

In  the  fifty-third  chapter  of  Isaiah  the  writer  seems 
to  have  preserved  a  harmonious  ratio  between  the  number 
of  active  and  passive  forms, — the  proportion  being  two 
active  predicate-verbs  to  one  passive  predicate-verb. 

Passive  Verbs  with  "Retained  Object" 

Present  usage  sanctions  a  grammatical  construction 
called  by  grammarians  the  retained  abject.  Certain  verbs 
like  ask,  give,  tell,  and  teach,  require  two  objects  after 
them  to  complete  their  meaning:  as,  "He  gave  me  a 
book".  "They  told  the  children  stories."  These  ideas 
may  be  expressed  in  the  passive  voice  in  two  ways : 

{A  book  was  given  to  me. 
I  was  given  a  book. 
f  Stories  were  told  to  the  children. 

2.     \ 

I  The  children  were  told  stories. 


26  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

Because  a  verb  in  the  passive  voice  cannot  logically  be 
followed  by  an  Object  complement,  this  seemingly  "illog- 
ical" idiom  has  been  called  "outrageously  anomalous,  but 
perhaps  incorrigible ' '. 

In  explanation  of  this  idiom,  "which  is  peculiar  to 
English  among  the  modern  languages,"  it  may  be  said 
that  the  irregularity  was  originally  due  to  confusion  of 
cases,  so  that  the  dative  was  used  as  the  subject  of  the 
sentence,  and  the  direct  object  (accusative)  was  allowed 
to  remain  after  the  passive  verb.  In  most  cases  the 
retained  object  answers  the  question,  "In  what  respect 
or  what  particular?"  one  is  or  was  asked,  given,  told, 
taught,  etc.  Hence  this  construction  is  in  definitive  rela- 
tion with  the  Predicate-verb,  and  is  to  be  classified  as 
an  Adverbial,  and  not  as  a  Subjective  complement. 

The  retained  abject  may  take  the  form  of  a  noun,  a 
gerund,  an  infinitive,  or  a  clause ;  as, 

1.  He  was  saved  that  expense. 

2.  I  was  taught  reading. 

3.  We  were  told  to  go  home. 

4.  They  were  informed  [that  the  ship  was  lost]. 
Ask  is  said  to  be  "the  only  verb  in  modern  English" 

that  takes  two  direct  objects  (Accusatives),  one  denoting 
a  person,  and  the  other  the  thing;  as, 

Active:    He  asked  me  my  opinion. 
Passive :    I  was  asked  my  opinion. 

Of  the  "double  objects"  that  are  regularly  used  with 
other  verbs,  one  is  a  direct  object  (Accusative),  and  the 
other  is  an  indirect,  or  secondary  object  (Dative). 

Note. — "Observe,  however,  that  this  Passive  Construction  has 
its  limits  and  is  impossible  with  particular  verbs  or  particular 
objects  .  .  .  'The  trouble  was  spared  me,'  is  hardly  English, 
while  'I  was  spared  the  trouble'  is  quite  natural." — Onions. 

INFINITIVES,  PARTICIPLES  AND  GERUNDS 

The  Verb  is  the  word  in  every  sentence  that  asserts 
(Latin,  ad,  to;  sertus,  bound,  i.  e.  parts  bound  together) 
that  a  particular  relation  exists  between  a  Subject  and 


PREDICATE  OP  THE  SENTENCE  27 

a  Predicate.  All  sentences  have  assertive  verbs,  either 
expressed  or  implied.  Such  verbs  are  classified  as  Finite 
Verbs,  because  they  are  limited  by  Person  and  Number. 

"The  essential  element  of  the  predicate  is  the  verb  in  its 
personal  form. ' ' — Maetzner. 

Verbs  in  principal  and  dependent  sentences,  where  not 
used  to  assert  relationship  between  a  subject  and  predi- 
cate, are  called  non-assertive  and  are  classified  as  Infinite 
Verbs.  As  soon  as  an  Infinite  verb  is  used  in  the  con- 
struction of  a  sentence  or  clause,  it  becomes  Finite.  The 
non-assertive  forms  of  the  verb  merely  assume  in  a 
general  way  relation  between  objects. 

The  infinitive  forms  of  the  verb  may  also  be  described 
as  being  non-modal,  or  non-predicative,  that  is,  incapable 
of  forming  a  true  predicate. 

Participles  are  not  limited  by  person  and  number,  and 
in  that  sense,  may  be  called  infinitives.  They  are,  there- 
fore, said  to  have  non-predicative  forms,  "  though  they 
often  imply  predication". 

The  verb  in  the  Infinitive  Clause,  being  in  its  nature 
general  rather  than  specific,  represents  the  relation 
between  Subject  and  Predicate  in  a  general,  or  an 
assumptive  manner.  The  Subject-word  of  the  infinitive 
verb  is  a  Noun  or  Pronoun  in  the  so-called  Objective 
Case,  the  construction  corresponding  with  the  Latin  rule 
that  "the  subject  of  the  infinitive  is  in  the  Accusative 
case". 

"One  of  the  non-predicative  forms,  however,  does  gain 
predicative  power  in  certain  constructions,  as  in  "I  believe  him 
to  be  honest, "  which  is  an  indirect  way  of  saying,  "He  is,  in 
my  opinion,  honest."  In  such  a  sentence,  accordingly,  a  group 
of  words  like  "him  to  be  honest "  may  properly  be  called  an 
"infinitive  clause". — Report  of  the  Joint  Committee  on  Gram- 
matical Nomenclature. 

'  *  The  infinitive  may  be  used  with  or  without  a  subject.  When 
a  subject  is  employed  for  the  infinitive  .  ".  .  the  subject  of 
the  infinitive  is  in  the  objective  case;  as,  Do  you  wish  me  to 
go?" — Fernald. 

"An  Infinitive  abridged  sentence  is  one  whose  leading  word 
of  construction  is  an  infinitive." — Holbrook. 


28  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 


In  the  sentence  'I  wish  Mm  to  go'  it  is  plain  that  'him  to 
go*  is  a  noun  clause,  of  which  'him'  is  the  subject,  and  'to  go' 
the  predicate.  Such  an  expression  is  called  an  infinitive  clause. ' ' 
— Kittredge  and  Farley. 

Written  Analysis  of  Infinitive  Clauses 

wanted    |"them  [  to  be    diligent. 

2c"-3c 
2c  2c 

for    them   |  to  be    dishonest.! 
"T         i"~'        a*  2c"-3c"      J 

1  1 

[For    students   |  to  be    happy!     is    desirable. 
~  P  ~  '  2c"-3c"  -I    T  3^ 

1  1 

They    (believe     fhim    |  to   be    the   author."] 

"1  2  Tr        ¥'  2c"-3c" 

2c  2c 

THE  INFINITIVE 

Being  allied  in  form  and  function  with  the  finite  verb, 
the  Infinitive  and  Participle  are  called  "verbals".  The 
Infinitive  has  the  nature  of  an  abstract  noun  and  is  known 
as  the  Noun-verbal.  The  Participle  has  the  nature  of  an 
Adjective  and  is  known  as  the  Adjective-verbal. 

The  following  examples  will  illustrate  the  principal 
uses  of  the  infinitive : 

1.  As  a  Noun  or  noun-equivalent : 

I  like  to  walk. 

He  taught  me  to  swim. 

My  friend  wishes  (to  read  the  book). 

To  err  is  human. 

It  is  good  (to  be  here). 

2.  As  an  Adjective  or  adjective-equivalent: 

Have  you  water  to  drink  and  bread  to  eat? 
There  is  a  time  to  work  and  a  time  to  play. 
He  has  a  knife  to  whittle  with. 
Nothing  to  do  is  worse  than  nothing  to  eat. 


PREDICATE  OF  THE  SENTENCE  29 

3.  As  an  Adverb  or  adverb-equivalent: 

I  came  (to  see  you). 
We  are  sorry  (to  hear  this). 
The  bread  was  not  fit  to  eat. 
Are  you  content  (to  be  poor?) 
(To  be  sure)  I  will  go  with  you. 

4.  As  Predicate-verb  in  "Infinitive  Clauses": 

I  believe  [him  to  be  honest]. 

They  saw  [him  take  the  book] . 

It  is  not  right  [for  them  to  disobey  the  rules] . 

5.  In  Exclamations  and  Interrogations: 

I  to  be  so  happy ! 

You  to  leave  me  so ! 

And  now  what  to  do?  where  to  go? 

To  think  that  he  should  deceive  me ! 

THE  PARTICIPLE 

The  Participle  is  that  form  of  the  verb  that  shares  in 
the  nature  of  a  verb  and  an  adjective.  It  therefore  may 
be  called  an  Adjective-verbal. 

The  participial  forms  are  used  in  a  variety  of  ways : 

1.  Participial  Nouns,  or  Gerunds: 

1.  The  signing  of  the  treaty  occurred  at  noon. 

2.  Did  you  enjoy  the  singing? 

3.  There  is  no  need  (of  (your  doing  that)). 

4.  No  one  spoke  of  (there  being  any  danger). 

5.  (Your  being  strangers)   would  not  prevent 

our  going. 

6.  (Of  (making  many  books))  there  is  no  end. 

7.  Running    about    aimlessly    will    accomplish 

nothing. 

8.  There  has  been  too  much  foolish  talking. 

9.  (Giving  him  money)  is  useless. 

2.  Participial  Adjectives : 

1.  Running1  water  is  always  clear. 

2.  '  *  The  breaking  waves  dashed  high.  ' ' 


30  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

3.  The  sky  is  full  of  twinkling  stars. 

4.  Beware  of  a  broken  chair. 

3.  Participial  Adverbs: 

1.  The  children  came  running  into  the  room. 

2.  It  is  passing  strange. 

3.  The  fields  are  clad  in  living  green  robes. 

4.  We  entered  a  stifling  hot  room. 

5.  The  boys  said  they  had  a  rattling  good  time. 

4.  Participial  Prepositions: 

1.  Nothing  was  said  (concerning  the  trouble). 

2.  Something  ought  to  be  said  (regarding  the 

work). 

3.  Do  nothing  (pending  the  court's  decision). 

4.  (Owing  to  an  accident)  we  were  delayed. 

5.  Participial  Conjunctions: 

1.  Seeing  (since)  we  must  part,  let  us  part  as 

friends. 

2.  Considering  (when  one  considers)  his  abili- 

ties, he  should  have  done  better. 

6.  The  Participle  proper: 

1.  We  saw  a  man  coming  rapidly  toward  us. 

2.  The  gentleman  hastily  rising  left  the  room. 

3.  They  found  the  book  lying  on  the  table. 

4.  He  is  a  man  repected  by  all. 

5.  (Having   finished   their   lesson)    the   pupils 

went  out  to  play. 

6.  The   farmer   caught    [the  boy   stealing  his 

apples]. 

7.  We  heard    [the  teacher  saying   ["Stop  the 

laughing"]]. 

"Every  infinitive  and  participle  has  a  subject  expressed  or 
understood. ' ' — Holbrook. 

"The  Subject  of  the  Infinitive,  unexpressed,  must  be  the 
same  as  that  of  the  principal  verb.  .  .  .  The  Participle  must 
always  have  a  proper  'subject  of  reference'." — Onions. 

The  following  sentences  will  illustrate  the  manner  of 
supplying  unexpressed  Subject- words : 


PREDICATE  OF  THE  SENTENCE  31 

1.  (To  see  is  to  believe, 

| [For  one  to  see]  is  [for  one  to  believe]. 

2.  Jl  hope  to  be  wealthy  sometime. 

(I  hope  [myself  to  be  wealthy  sometime], 
fl  come  to  bury  Caesar  not  to  praise  him. 

3.  -{I  come   [for  me  to  bury  Caesar],  not  [for  me  to 
(       praise  him]. 

4.  J  To  be  a  lawyer  was  his  desire. 

I  [For  himself  to  be  a  lawyer]  was  his  desire. 

"A  Participle  is  a  form  of  the  verb  combining  the  properties 
of  a  verb  and  an  adjective  or  a  verb  and  a  noun.  .  .  .  The 
form  in  -ing,  wherever  found,  is  to  be  called  the  Present  Par- 
ticiple, and  its  use  as  a  participle  is  then  to  be  explained.  .  . 
The  participle  is  thus  a  wonderful  contrivance  of  language  for 
carrying  over  the  idea  of  the  verb  into  close  and  vivid  connec- 
tion with  other  words,  to  modify  a  noun,  to  take  an  object,  or 
to  be  itself  the  subject  or  the  object  of  a  verb  or  the  object 
of  a  preposition.  The  participle  expresses  the  idea  of  a  verb 
otherwise  than  as  a  predicate;  it  might  be  called  the  non-pred- 
icable  verb,  or  most  fittingly  'the  participial  mode  of  the  verb', 
having  three  tenses,  present,  past,  and  perfect,  since  the  parti- 
ciples distinctly  divide  along  the  line  of  time." — Fernald. 
**#**# 

Note. — The  use  of  the  term  Gerund  for  the  participial  noun 
is  recommended  by  the  Joint  Committee  on  Grammatical 
Nomenclature. 

COMPARATIVE  VIEW  OF  VERBALS  IN  -ING 

In  grammar  the  term  "verbal"  has  reference  to  words 
derived  from  verbs.  The  so-called  root  infinitive  of  the 
verb  forms  the  basis  of  all  verbals.  From  the  infinitive, 
e.  g.  run,  stand,  climb,  stop,  stoop,  there  are  the  verbals : 
running,  standing,  climbing,  stopping,  stooping.  As 
grammatical  elements  the  verbals  in  -ing  may  be  classified 
under  the  following  heads  : 

1.  Noun- Verbals,  or  Gerunds. 

2.  Adjective- Verbals,  or  Participles. 

3.  Verbal  Adjectives. 

Note.  —  "The  verbals,"  says  H.  Sweet,  "are  intermediate 
between  finite  verbs  on  the  one  hand  and  nouns  and  adjectives 
on  the  other." 


32  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

The  Gerund,  or  noun-verbal,  has  the  same  form  as  the 
present  participle,  but  a  quite  different  function.  The 
former  may  have  the  function  of  a  noun  and  a  verb,  the 
latter  that  of  an  adjective  and  a  verb.  The  participle 
modifies  a  noun  or  noun-equivalent;  the  gerund  never 
modifies,  but  may  be  modified  by  adjectives  and  adverbs 
or  their  equivalents.  And  in  addition  gerunds  may  be 
used  like  common  nouns,  as  Subject-word,  Subjective 
complement,  Object  of  prepositions  and  transitive  verbs ; 
and  like  verbs  take  a  direct  or  an  indirect  object. 

A  word-group  organized  with  a  gerund  is  called  a 
''Verbal  noun- phrase".  Whenever  the  past  participle  is 
joined  with  being  and  having,  the  gerund  exhibits  the 
characteristics  of  voice  and  tense;  as, 

1.  After  being  visited  by  my  friends  I  felt  happier. 

2.  After  having  been  drafted,  the  man  deserted. 

3.  I  do  not  remember  having  seen  him. 

The  following  examples  will  serve  to  illustrate  the 
peculiar  use  of  verbals: 

I.     Noun-verbals,  or  Gerunds. 

1.  Boys,  stop  throwing  rocks. 

2.  Swimming  and  rowing  will  strengthen  the  body. 

3.  We  never  thought  of  your  being  angry. 

4.  The  thought  of  your  being  my  friend  gives  me  much 
pleasure. 

5.  Studying  without  an  aim  is  fruitless. 

6.  There  is  no  denying  your  ability  to  do  it. 

7.  The   laying   of   the    corner-stone   will   take   place 
tomorrow. 

8.  Just  giving  him  advice  will  do  no  good. 

II.     Adjective-verbals,  or  Participles. 

1.  So  looking  down,  he  remained  silent. 

2.  Seeing  the  danger,  the  driver  halted. 

3.  We  heard  the  crowd  running  down  the  street. 

4.  A  certain  man  was  standing  on  the  corner. 


PREDICATE  OF  THE  SENTENCE  33 

III.     Verbal  Adjectives. 

1.  We  stood  beside  the  flowing"  stream. 

2.  A  charming  view  lay  before  us. 

3.  Did  yon  ever  attend  a  quilting  party? 

AUXILIARY  VERBS 

Those  verbs  known  as  Auxiliary  verbs  have  little  inher- 
ent meaning,  their  function  being  simply  to  help  to  form 
modes  and  tenses  of  principal  or  notional  verbs : 

There  are  eight  of  them :  be,  do,  have,  may,  can,  must, 
shall  and  will. 

Ought  and  let  have  been  called  "semi-auxiliaries". 

Auxiliaries  may  be  divided  into  three  classes : 

1.  Modal  auxiliaries  (in  ''potential  phrases") ;  as,  may 
go,  can  go,  must  go,  might  have  gone,  etc. 

2.  Tense  auxiliaries   (futures  and  perfects) ;  as,  shall 
or  will  go,  shall  or  will  have  gone,  have  or  had  gone. 

3.  Voice  and  tense  auxiliary:    The  verb  be  is  used  to 
change  the  active  into  the  passive  voice;  and  to  form  the 
past  tenses:    as,  is  seen,  was  heard,  will  be  found,  was 
running,  has  been  running,  has  been  gone. 

NOTES  —  PRINCIPLES  —  DEFINITIONS 

After  intransitive  verbs  the  completing  element  is  a 
Subjective  complement  if  it  refers  to  the  Subject-word, 
and  an  Adverbial  Modifier  if  it  refers  to  the  Predicate- 
verb. 

"Many  grammarians  regard  the  verb  'to  be'  as  incapable  of 
being  modified,  and,  in  consequence,  the  adverb  that  follows 
it  is  considered,  for  the  time  being,  as  a  complement  the  equiv- 
alent of  a  predicate  adjective.  Thus  in  the  sentence,  'He  is 
here,'  here  is  regarded,  for  the  time  being,  as  a  predicate 
adjective,  instead  of  an  adverb;  again,  if  in  addition  to  the 
adverbial  modifier,  the  verb  to  "be  is  followed  by  a  complement 
(predicate  noun  or  adjective),  the  adverbial  modifier  is  then 
regarded  as  modifying  the  idea  conveyed  by  the  verb  and  the 
complement;  thus;  in  the  sentence,  'He  was  wealthy  at  one 
time,'  'at  one  time'  may  be  regarded  as  the  modifier  of  'was 
wealthy'." — Josephine  Turck  Baker  in  "Correct  English ". 


34  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

The  opposite  view  is  upheld  by  Holbrook  in  his  "New 
English  Grammar": 

"But  an  adverb  is  never  an  attribute.  'He  is  here.'  In 
expressions  of  this  kind,  the  attribute  is  included  in  the  verb 
'is',  and  may  be  expressed;  as,  He  is,  or  He  is  existing  here, 
or  He  is  sitting  here,  etc.,  etc.  So  of  'She  was  there'.  In  such 
cases  the  adverb  modifies  the  copula  or  the  attribute  included 
in  the  verb  'be'." 

It  seems  quite  obvious  that  in  the  sentence,  "He  is 
here,"  we  must  first  discover  what  is  the  function  of  the 
descriptive  word  "here",  before  we  are  able  to  say 
whether  it  is  a  noun,  an  adjective,  or  an  adverb. 

Since  it  is  the  clear  purpose  of  language  to  represent  or 
describe  reality,  predications  must  needs  deal  with  the 
attributes  of  reality.  "The  relations  most  frequently 
employed  to  distinguish  and  define  beings,  are  relations 
of  time,  space,  and  causality.  As  soon  as  things  are  known 
to  be  enduring  for  a  longer  or  shorter  period,  or  having 
this  or  that  size  or  form,  and  these  relations  are  used  to 
designate  or  distinguish  them  from  other  beings,  these 
relations  become  their  attributes." — Porter. 

Position,  then,  is  one  of  the  chief  characteristics  of 
objects,  and,  when  asserted  in  a  predicate,  as,  "A  man 
is  here",  "A  horse  is  there,"  has  especial  reference  to  the 
subject  and  not  to  the  verb  in  the  predicate.  "Here"  and 
"there"  in  such  predications  do  not  modify  the  verb  "is" 
as  adverbs,  but  are  Subjective  complements,  character- 
izing the  subjects  of  the  sentences. 

In  this  function  "here"  and  "there"  are  adjectival  and 
not  adverbial. 

In  a  sentence  there  are  but  three  possible  positions  for 
the  adjective  and  the  adjective-equivalent:  (1)  before 
the  noun,  (2)  after  the  noun,  (3)  in  the  predicate  after 
the  copulative  verb.  These  positions  are  known  as  (1) 
adherent,  (2)  appositive,  (3)  predicate.  The  first  and 
second  are  subordinate  positions  with  reference  to  a  noun, 
and  the  third  a  principal  or  coordinate  position.  For 
example : 


PREDICATE  OF  THE  SENTENCE  35 

1.  Old  and  new  books  are  on  the  shelf. 

2.  Hymns,  old  and  new,  are  in  the  hymnal. 

3.  The  stories  in  my  reader  are  old  and  new. 
"Here"  and  "there"  as  place,  or  position-attributes 

can,  according  to  the  regular  habits,  of  English  speech, 
occupy  but  two  of  these  positions:  (1)  predicate,  and 
(2)  appositive.  For  example: 

1.  My  book  is  here;  yours  is  there. 

2.  This  book  here  is  mine ;  that  one  there  is  yours. 

In  such  irregular  speech  as,  "This  here  man  and  that 
there  horse",  there  is  a  very  natural  attempt  to  use  these 
attributes  in  the  adherent  position. 

"In  a  proposition  one  term  is  predicated  of  another;  the 
subject  is  referred  to  the  predicate,  and  the  predicate  gives  us 
information  about  the  subject." — Newman. 

"When  the  predicate  does  not  really  involve  an  action  we 
have  seen  that  the  abstract  verb  "is"  fulfils  the  predicative 
function. ' '—  Bloomfield. 

"A  naked  sentence  is  one  in  which  both  the  subject-idea 
and  predicate  verb  are  unmodified.  Modifiers  are  additions 
or  adjuncts  which  enlarge  or  define  the  meaning  of  word 
elements. ' ' — Bain. 

"Language  is  a  complex  set  of  associations  of  experiences 
in  groups,  each  of  which  is  accompanied  by  a  habitual  sound- 
utterance.  ' ' — Bloomfield. 

TYPES  OF  JUDGMENT 

Types  of  judgment  have  been  described  and  classified 
by  Pillsbury  as  follows: 

1.  The     Interjection     or     linguistic     judgment;     as, 
"Wolf"!  "Fire"! 

2.  The  impersonal  judgment;  as,  "It's  raining ".  "It's 
a  wolf". 

3.  The    Demonstrative    judgment;    as,    "There    is    a 
wolf".    "Here  is  a  tree". 

4.  The  Typical  logical  judgment;  as,  "That  tree  is 
green  ". 


36  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 


"The  significance  of  subject,  predicate,  and  copula  is  in  the 
respective  functions  which  they  perform  in  the  mediation  of 
experience.  The  subject  is  the  formulation  of  the  conditions 
of  action.  The  predicate  is  the  statement  of  the  method  of 
dealing  with  the  conditions.  The  copula  is  the  attempt  to 
apply  the  method  under  the  conditions. ' ' — Bawden. 


CHAPTER  III. 
THE  FUNCTIONS  OF  THE  PARTS  OF  SPEECH 

NOUNS 

There  seems  to  be  good  reason  for  believing  that  the 
Noun  is  "the  most  ancient  part  of  speech".  Certain  it 
is  that  all  objects  in  man's  environment  would  have  to 
be  named  before  they  could  be  talked  about. 

And  we  might  well  suppose  that  action-words, — names 
describing  the  appearance  of  moving  objects, — might  be 
the  next  part  of  speech  in  the  order  of  time.  For  with 
these  two  parts  of  speech,  the  Noun  and  the  Verb,  man 
could  begin  to  form  sentences,  that  is,  begin  to  think 
and  to  talk. 

A  Noun  is  the  name  of  anything  that  has  power  to 
arrest  the  attention,  whether  it  be  within  our  inner  world 
of  experiences,  or  an  object  in  our  outer  world  of  exper- 
iences. 

Nouns  may  be  used  in  the  following  situations  in 
sentences : 

1.  Subject:  the  actor,  agent,  or  instrument. 

2.  Object :  that  which  is  affected  by  an  action. 

3.  Subjective  Complement :  that  which  completes  the 

predicate-verb  and  refers  to  the  Subject. 

4.  Vocative :   case  of  address ;  independent  element. 

5.  Appositive :   a  denning  or  explanatory  word. 

6.  Dative :  case  of  the  indirect  or  more  remote  object. 

7.  Object  of  a  Preposition:  thus  forming  a  phrase. 

8.  Subject  of  an  infinite  verb :  thus  forming  an  infin- 

itive clause  or  abridged  sentence. 


38  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

9.     Objective    Complement:     that    is,    "a    factitive 
object/' 

10.  Adverbial  Modifier :  in  definitive  construction  with 

Verbs  and  Adjectives. 

11.  Possessive :  modifier  of  another  noun. 

Illustrative  Examples 

1.  The  boys  are  playing. 

2.  John  hit  the  ball. 

3.  My  two  friends  are  lawyers. 

4.  William,  bring  me  the  book. 

5.  Mr.  Jones,  the  tax  collector,  is  here. 

6.  The  father  gave  his  son  a  present. 

7.  A  book  lies  (on  the  table). 

8.  He  saw  [the  boy  hit  the  ball]. 

9.  Hard  work  will  make  [him  a  student]. 

10.  He  walked  a  mile  every  day.     "Beauty  is  only 

skin  deep." 

11.  The  day's  work  is  done. 

VERBS 

Primarily  the  Verb  is  looked  upon  as  a  word  repre- 
senting the  action  or  behavior  of  objects  within  one's 
experience.  Just  as  the  Noun  serves  as  the  organizing 
center  of  the  Subject  of  a  sentence,  so  the  Verb  is  the 
nucleus  around  which  is  gathered  all  the  Predicate 
elements  of  the  sentence. 

The  principal  functions  of  the  Verb  may  be  summarized 
under  the  following  heads : 

1.  Predicate-verb :   to  assert  something  of  the  Subject. 

2.  Attributive  verb:    to  express  some  quality  of  the 

Subject. 

3.  Voice:   to  denote  the  direction  of  an  action. 

4.  Mode :     to    indicate    the   emotional    mood    of   the 

speaker. 

5.  Tense :  to  show  the  time  of  an  action. 


FUNCTIONS  OF  PARTS  OF  SPEECH  £9 

6.  Base-word:    to  form  Predicate-verb  phrases;  also 

to  form : 

a.  Infinitive  phrases. 

b.  Infinitive  clauses,  or  abridged  sentences. 

c.  Participial  clauses  and  phrases. 

d.  Participial  nouns,   adjectives,   adverbs,   prepo- 

sitions, and  conjunctions. 

7.  Reciver  of  Modifiers :  person,  number,  adverbs,  and 

Adverbial  Modifiers   (Adverb-equivalents). 

Illustrative  Examples 

1.  The  cat    |  is  black. 

2.  The  fire    |  burns. 

3a.  The  boy   |  broke  the  window  (Active  Voice). 
3b.  The  window    |  was  broken    by  the  boy    (Passive 
Voice). 

4.  How  warm  the  sun  is !    The  children  want  to  walk 

with  you  in  the  park.  They  may  go,  but  do 
not  allow  them  to  pick  any  flowers.  Do  you 
understand  me? 

5.  A  book  agent  came  here  yesterday,  and  will  come 

again  tomorrow. 

6.  The  moon  might  have  been  seen. 

a.  It  is  a  grand  sight  (to  view  the  ocean). 

b.  We  saw  [the  sun  go  behind  the  clouds]. 

c.  We  saw  [the  harvesters  reaping  the  grain]. 
c".   (Hearing  a  noise)  he  turned  around. 

d.  Most  children  like  reading.  The  hunting  season 

has  opened.  The  pupils  came  running  out  of 
the  room.  (Barring  accidents)  the  boat  will 
arrive  tomorrow.  Seeing  you  have  come,  let 
us  go  in  at  once. 

7.  I  am  going  to  town.     They  are  in  the  city.     Go 

quietly  out  of  the  room.    The  city  council  acted 
(with  discretion)   [when  the  vote  was  taken]. 


40  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

ADJECTIVES 

Adjectives  are  said  to  be  the  names  of  the  attributes  of 
persons  and  things.  In  sentences  they  belong  to  Nouns, 
describing  their  qualities  or  characteristics. 

The  work  done  by  the  Adjective  in  a  sentence  is  deter- 
mined by  some  of  the  following  considerations: 

A.  Place  or  position  in  the  sentence : 

1.  Before    or   after   the   Predicate -verb    (Predicate 

position). 

2.  Before  or  after  its  Noun  (Adherent  or  Appositive 

position). 

3.  After  a  noun  or  pronoun  Object. 

These  positions  are  designated  by  the  following  gram- 
matical terms: 

1.  Subjective    Complement:    forming    predicates 

with  the  verb. 

2.  Adjective  Modifier:    (Adherent  or  Appositive). 

3.  Objective  Complement:    completing  the  mean- 

ing of  a  noun  or  pronoun,  the  Object  of  a 
transitive  verb. 

B.  Power  to  express  degrees  of  comparison :  better,  best, 
richer,    richest;    less,    least;    more    delightful,    most 
delightful. 

C.  Special  classes  of  words,  having  attributive  qualities, 
that  are  used  for  the  following  purposes: 

1.  Demonstrative    words:  this,    that;    here,    there; 

now,  then;  yon,  yonder. 

2.  Interrogative  words:  which,  whose,  what: 

a.  Which  road  shall  I  take? 

b.  What  formula  did  you  use? 

c.  Whose  letter  is  that  in  your  hand  ? 

3.  Exclamatory  what:   What  a  noble  figure! 

4.  Relative  words:    which,  what,  whichever,  what- 

ever. 

a.  Days  passed:   during  which  time  we  did  not 

hear  from  you. 

b.  I  do  not  know  what  manner  of  life  he  leads. 


FUNCTIONS  OF  PARTS  OF  SPEECH  41 

c.  Follow  whatever  plans  you  like. 

d.  Whichever  way  one  turns  there  will  be  found 

difficulties. 

Illustrative  Examples 

Subjective  Complement 

1.  The  giant  is  tall. 

2.  Beautiful  are  the  gates  of  Zion. 

Adjective  Modifier 

3.  Dark  shadows  cover  the  mountain  side. 

4.  Stories,  old  and  new,  please  every  one. 

Objective  Complement 

5.  The  children  washed  their  hands  clean. 

6.  Your  going  makes  me  sad. 

7.  Make  straight  the  paths  of  progress. 

In  general  it  may  be  said  that  the  function  of  adjectives 
is  to  modify  nouns  and  pronouns.  But  all  words  and 
word-groups  that  limit  or  qualify  nouns  and  pronouns 
are  not  adjectives.  Such  as  are  not  adjectives  must  be 
classified  as  Adjectival  Modifiers. 

The  Subjective  Complement  and  the  Objective  Comple- 
ment are  not  to  be  classed  as  modifying  elements.  They 
are  as  primary  or  coordinate  as  the  Subject- word  and  the 
Predicate-verb,  which  are  the  two  important  grammatical 
categories. 

"The  adjectives  express  a  quality  (green,  large,  long)  or 
what  is  viewed  as  such  (growing,  burning,  boyish).  They  can 
be  used  to  express  neither  predication  nor  action,  actor,  nor 
objects  affected,  but  stand  only  in  attribution  with  nouns;  in 
the  predicate,  as  qualities  predicated  of  the  subject  (The  man 
is  good)." — Bloomfield. 

"The  use  of  the  adjective  implies  an  act  of  judgment,  so 
the  predicate  use  of  an  adjective  is  a  primary  office,  as,  'The 
sky  Is  red." — Leonard. 

ADVERBS 

As  implied  in  the  name,  the  Adverb  is  a  word  that 
naturally  attaches  itself  to  the  verb.  In  the  early  stages 


42  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

of  language  development  the  adverbs  were  not  separated 
from  the  verbs,  both  being  written  together  as  single 
words,  and  thus  forming  "verb-adverb  phrases". 

It  is  the  special  function  of  adverbs  to  modify  verbs, 
adjectives,  adverbs,  and  participles.  When  modifying 
verbs  they  tell  haw,  when,  where,  or  why  an  action  took 
place. 

A  few  adverbs,  however,  are  used  as  Adjective  Modi- 
fiers of  nouns  and  pronouns;  as,  scarcely  a  person  ap- 
peared; hardly  a  man  was  injured;  not  a  bird  was  seen. 
"Not  enjoyment  and  not  sorrow  is  our  destined  end  or 
way."  "Not  a  drum  was  heard,  not  a  funeral  note." 

Because  adverbs  are  attributes  used  to  describe  the 
qualities  of  things  and  their  behavior  when  in  motion, 
they  have  been  called  "secondary  attributes". 

In  classifying  the  attributive  work  done  by  adverbs  in 
the  sentence  grammars  usually  speak  of  seven  classes : 

1.  Place:   here,  there,  where,  whence,  etc. 

2.  Time:    then,  today,  immediately,  soon,  afterwards, 

etc. 

4.  Manner:   rapidly,  slowly,  fast,  kindly,  etc. 

5.  Cause:    consequently,  hence,  therefore,  then,  etc. 

6.  Number:    once,  twice,  first,  secondly,  etc. 

7.  Negative:  no,  not,  never,  not  even,  not  only,  etc. 
In  accordance  with  their  other  characteristic  functions 

adverbs  are  classed  as  Relative  Adverbs,  Conjunctive 
Adverbs,  and  Interrogative  Adverbs;  as, 

1.  I  do  not  know  the  reason  why  he  is  absent. 

2.  Can  you  tell  me  where  the  lesson  is  ? 

3.  I  expect  to  go  wherever  I  am  sent. 

4.  Do  you  know  why  the  train  is  late? 

5.  I  will  do  it  because  you  ask  it. 

6.  Why  have  you  remained  away  so  long  ? 

7.  When  will  the  work  be  finished? 

Adverbs  have  the  power  to  modify  not  only  single 
words,  but  word-groups:  phrases  and  sentences.  Such 
adverbs  are  known  as  Phrase-modifying,  and  Sentence- 


FUNCTIONS  OF  PARTS  OF  SPEECH  43 

modifying  Adverbs. 

The  following  illustrative  material  is  based  upon 
Sweet's  treatment  of  Adverbs  in  his  "New  English 
Grammar". 

Sentence- Modifying  Adverbs 

(Written  symbol  Sent-5) 

1.  I  certainly  think  he  will  come  today. 

2.  I  do  not  think  he  will  come  until  tomorrow. 

3.  He  will  probably  not  bring  the  book. 

4.  Indeed  I  mean  every  word  of  it. 

5:     Undoubtedly  you  are  right  in  thinking  so. 

6.  Evidently  he  was  in  the  wrong. 

7.  ' '  Generally  speaking1  the  figurative  use  of  a  word  is 

derived  from  its  sense." — James. 

8.  "The  very  chin,  modestly  speaking,  was  as  long  as 

my  whole  face." — Addison. 

9.  I  know  (at  least)   [what  my  own  experience  is]. 

Note. — "Some  sentence-modifying  adverbs  single  out  one 
particular  word,  although  they  still  modify  the  sentence  as  a 
whole;  as, 

Even  Homer  sometimes  nods. 

Only  a  fool  would  do  that. 

These    adverbs   are    classed    as   word-sentence-modifying,   word- 
emphasizing  adverbs." — H.  Sweet. 

Phrase-Modifying  Adverbs 

(Written  symbol  Ph-5) 

1.  He  is  quite  (in  the  wrong). 

2.  I  am  half  (through  my  work). 

3.  He  gave  his  money  not    (from  benevolence)    but 

(from  ostentation). 

4.  He  rendered  the  service  only  (from  a  sense  of  duty). 

5.  He  did  it  partly  (from  love  of  show),  partly  (from 

a  desire  of  praise). 


44 


SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 


1.     He 


2.     They 


3.     He 


4.     They 


Predicate-Modifying  Adverbs 

(Written  symbol  Pred-5) 
(in  his  class). 


Pred-5 
sad    (by  his  sudden  departure) 

~  Pred-5 

(at  one  time). 

Pred-5 

dumb     (by  his  eloquence). 
~3c Pred-5  ' 


TABLE  OF  THE  PARTS  OF  SPEECH 


I.  Notions. 


fl  Substantives 


II.  Relations. 


With  an 
assertion    .. 
Without  an 


Noun. 

Pronoun. 

Verb. 

Adjective. 


Adverb. 


2  Attributives.  , 

assertion 
Secondary 
attribute    .. 

'1.   Between  one  no-  } ..Preposition. 

tion  and  another.     ( 

2.    Between  one  as-  j .Conjunction. 

sertion  and  another f 
Extra-grammatical  utterance Interjection. 


NOTES  —  PRINCIPLES  —  DEFINITIONS 

"An  adverb  is  simply  the  attribute  of  an  attribute;  it  bears 
the  same  relation  to  an  attribute-word  as  an  adjective  does  to 
a  thing- word." — H.  Sweet. 

"In  form  the  adverbs  are  almost  without  exception,  abbre- 
viations and  often  corruptions  of  other  parts  of  speech.  In 
meaning  they  denote  qualities  which  do  not  belong  to  objects 
(nouns),  but  rather  to  actions,  etc.  (verbs).  Hence  their  one 
unchanging  peculiarity,  common  to  all,  is  that  they  cannot  be 
joined  to  a  noun,  but  only  to  verbs,  and,  through  them,  to 
adjectives  and  other  adverbs." — De  Vere. 

"Adverbs  shade  off  into  prepositions,  and  conjunctions,  and 
the  same  word  is  often  used  as  two  of  these  parts  of  speech 
or  even  as  all  three. ' ' — Quoted  by  Leonard. 


FUNCTIONS  OF  PARTS  OF  SPEECH  45 

"  Adverbs  modify  so  many  different  parts  of  speech,  besides 
modifying  groups  and  sentences,  that  their  position  varies 
greatly." — H.  Sweet. 

"Than  (akin  in  origin  to  the  demonstrative  pronoun  that) 
is  a  relative  adverb,  the  old  meaning  of  which  was  'at  one 
time'  or  'when*.  'I  am  taller  than  he  is,"  thus  originally 
meant:  'When  he  is  tall,  I  am  taller*." — Carpenter. 

In  such  constructions  as  (1)  "The  more  the  merrier; 
(2)  the  sooner  the  better;  (3)  the  more  the  better;  (4)  the 
better  I  am,  the  happier  I  am",  the  is  not  the  definite 
adjective  or  article;  it  is  a  form  of  the  old  relative  or 
demonstrative  pronoun  that,  used  as  an  adverb  of  degree. 
Thus  in  the  fourth  example  the  meaning  is:  "In  what 
degree  I  am  better,  in  that  degree  I  am  happier". 

FUNCTION  OF  THE  CONNECTIVES 

There  are  certain  classes  of  words  called  Connectives, 
whose  especial  function  in  a  sentence  is  to  join  together 
single  words  and  word-groups  and  aid  in  coordinating 
and  subordinating  related  parts  into  a  coherent  whole. 

The  following  are  the  principal  classes: 

1.  Relative  pronouns:  connecting  a  dependent  with  the 
main  sentence. 

Examples :  who,  which,  what,  that. 

2.  Relative  adverbs :   connecting  a  dependent  with  the 
main  sentence. 

Examples:   when,  where,  while,  hence,  why. 

3.  Participles:   connecting  words,  phrases,  and  clauses 
with  some  antecedent  word  which  it  modifies:    ("Seeing 
the  multitude)  he  went  up  into  a  mountain." 

4.  Prepositions:     connecting  words,  phrases,  clauses, 
and  sentences  as  object-terms  with  an  antecedent  term. 

5.  Conjunctions:    connecting  words,  phrases,  clauses, 
and  sentences  as  antecedent  and  subsequent  terms,  thus 
indicating  subordinate  and  coordinate  sentence  elements. 
These  two  classes  are  often  further  classified  as  to  their 
meaning  as  follows: 


46  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

Coordinating 

1.  Copulative :  uniting  terms  or  parts,  so  that  the  sub- 
sequent term   adds  something  to  the   antecedent  term: 
and,  also,  likewise,  too,  moreover,  as  well  as,  etc. 

2.  Alternative :   offering  or  refusing  a  choice ;  or,  nor, 
either,  neither,  else,  etc, 

3.  Correlative:   one  term  answering  to  what  the  other 
calls  for:   both — and,  either — or,  neither — nor,  not  only 
— but  also. 

4.  Adversative:    turning  the  attention  away  from  the 
antecedent  term:    but,  yet,  however,  still,  nevertheless, 
etc. 

5.  Illative:     expressing    an    inference    or    conclusion 
drawn  from  the  previous  statements:    therefore,  hence, 
then,  thus,  so,  consequently,  accordingly,  etc. 

Subordinating1 

Grammars  for  the  most  part  formally  classify  the  sub- 
ordinate conjunction  under  the  following  heads:  (1) 
Place,  (2)  Time,  (3)  Cause  or  reason,  (4)  Condition, 
(5)  Purpose  or  result,  (6)  Comparison,  (7)  Relation, 
(8)  Concession,  (9)  Manner. 

PREPOSITIONS 

The  term,  Preposition,  was  coined  by  the  early  gram- 
marians to  indicate  its  position  with  reference  to  other 
words  in  the  sentence.  This  was  in  front  of  verbs,  verbals, 
and  nouns.  And  being  attached  to  the  words  they  modi- 
fied, they  were  regarded  as  prefixes. 

Note. — "In    some   languages  like   Japanese   the   prepositions 

follow  and  never  precede  the  object." — J.  M.  Dixon. 

Today,  in  modern  languages,  the  term  is  still  retained 
as  a  grammatical  category,  though  it  no  longer  correctly 
describes  either  the  use  or  location  of  this  important 
particle.  ± 


FUNCTIONS  OF  PARTS  OF  SPEECH  47 

It  is  the  chief  function  of  the  preposition  to  designate 
the  kind  of  relation  existing  between  two  words  or  terms, 
the  first  of  these  being  the  antecedent-term  and  the  second 
the  object-term.  The  antecedent  term  may  be  a  noun, 
verb,  adjective,  or  adverb;  the  object  may  be  a  single 
word  or  word-group :  phrase,  clause,  sentence. 

A  preposition,  therefore,  may  be  said  to  be  an  index 
of  the  kind  of  relation  that  exists  in  a  given  sentence 
between  two  terms  of  a  comparison,  one  of  which  may 
be  unexpressed. 

Examples  of  Antecedent  and  Object-Terms 

1.  Here  is  a  pail  OF  water. 

2.  There  is  a  pail  floating  ON  the  water. 

3.  The  pail  is  full  OF  excellent  water. 

4.  A  boy  has  a  pail  WITH  water  in  it,  and  another 
WITHOUT  any. 

5.  James    was     (ON    time),    but    his    brother    was 
(BEHIND  time). 

6.  Men  work  FOR  wages. 

7.  Houses  are  built  to  live  IN.    .    .    . 

8.  He  has  a  staff  to  walk  WITH.    .    .    . 

The  second  or  object-term  may  be  a  single  word  or 
a  word  group. 

The  object  of  the  preposition  may  be : 

1.  Noun:    He  is  a  man  (of  wealth). 

2.  Pronoun:    Let  us  go  (with  them). 

3.  Adjective:    We  should  give  (to  the  poor). 

4.  Adverb:     (From  there)  the  party  went  to  Rome. 

5.  Infinitive:    He  does  nothing  (but  read). 

6.    Infinitive-group:   It  is  time  (for  [them  to  finish  the 
work.]) 

7.  Gerund-group:    He  has  no  idea  (of  sending  me  the 

money). 

8.  Clause:   I  have  no  thought  (of  [what  I  shall  need] ). 

9.  Sentence:    He  answered  my  questions  (with,  "That 

will  depend  upon  the  circumstances"). 


48  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

INTERJECTIONS 

"An  Interjection  is  an  exclamatory  word  or  sound  thrown 
into  a  sentence  to  express  an  emotion  of  the  mind,  and  is  not, 
properly,  a  part  of  speech." — Eowe  and  Webb. 

Examples 

Oh  !  Alas !  Ah !  Hark !  Hush ! 

0  dear  me !  Woe  is  me !  For  shame ! 

Look  out !    Good-bye !   Farewell ! 

' l  The  early  grammarians,  wiser  perhaps  than  we,  did  not  rank 
the  interjection  as  a  part  of  speech.  It  seems  to  have  slipped 
into  the  list  at  a  later  era,  partly  perhaps  to  preserve  the 
historic  number  eight  after  the  article  had  been  crowded  out, 
and  other  'parts'  had  become  differently  divided." — Leonard. 

"If  the  English  is  poorer  in  conjunctive  particles  than  either 
the  Greek  or  the  German,  it  abounds,  by  way  of  strange  com- 
pensation, in  interjections,  for  which  there  is  no  equivalent, 
at  least  in  the  refined  form  of  other  languages.  .  .  .  The 
tendency  to  energetic  brevity,  which  characterizes  our  language, 
has,  no  doubt,  led  to  the  frequent  use  of  interjections.  .  .  . 
A  long  speech  often  does  not  convey  as  much  as  one  short 
interjection.  .  .  .  They  are  indispensable  for  the  full  expres- 
sion of  feeling  and  passion." — De  Vere. 

NOTES  —  PRINCIPLES  —  DEFINITIONS 

Many  Conjunction-equivalents  are  in  use,   of  the  fol- 
lowing kinds: 

a)  A  phrase  formed  with  a  preposition  governing  a 
noun,  with  a  that-clause  in  apposition,  as  "on  the  ground 
that",  "for  the  reason  that". 

b)  A  verb-adjective  governing  a  that-clause  as  object: 
as,  seeing  that ;  considering  that. 

(c)     A  preposition  governing   a  that-clause;   as,    "in 
that". 

The  following  are  examples: 

1.  In  [that  ye  have  done  it  unto  the  least  of  these], 

ye  have  done  it  unto  me. 

2.  This  is  strange,  considering  [that  he  is  your  friend] . 


FUNCTIONS  OF  PARTS  OF  SPEECH  49 

3.  Seeing  [that  you  are  here],  you  may  as  well  stay. 

4.  (On  the  ground)   [that  he  had  fairly  won  the  race] 

the  athlete  demanded  the  prize. 

— Adapted  from  Onions'  Syntax. 

"It  may  be  of  some  assistance  to  remark  that  a  sentence 
joined  to  the  previous  one  by  a  coordinating  conjunction  is 
grammatically  independent,  as  well  as  one  not  joined  to  it  at 
all.  But  the  difference  between  a  coordinating  and  a  subordin- 
ating conjunction  is  itself  in  English  rather  fine." — The  King's 
English. 

The  most  common  and  numerous  connectives  are : 
(1)  Prepositions,  and  (2)  Conjunctions. 

The  former  deals  with  relations,  the  latter  with  con- 
nection. But  every  relation  implies  some  connection,  and 
every  connection  a  relation.  Thus  both  perform  the  same 
kind  of  function,  but  in  a  reverse  order;  that  is,  the 
first  function  of  the  preposition  is  to  point  out  the 
relations,  that  of  the  conjunction,  connection.  In  these 
relations  there  are  two  terms  to  be  considered :  the  ante- 
cedent term  and  the  subsequent  term. 

"No  preposition  is,  perhaps,  more  frequently  employed 
between  nouns  than  of,  and,  although  it  has  the  same  meaning, 
of  itself,  yet  it  expresses  a  great  variety  of  relations.  To 
discover  the  relation  in  any  given  instance,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  ascertain  just  what  are  the  terms  of  the  relation." — Choate. 

"Prepositions  serve  to  connect  words  with  one  another,  and 
to  show  the  relation  between  them." — Murray. 

"Prepositions  express  a  relation,  usually  spatial,  with  regard 
to  an  object." — Bloomfield. 

"The  grammatical  function  of  a  preposition  is  to  make  the 
noun-word  it  governs  into  an  adjunct-word." — H.  Sweet. 

"Now,  an  adverb,  is  made  a  part  of  a  prepositional  phrase: 
'Such  a  periodical  is  what  I  have  been  seeking  diligently  (for 
now)  many  years'." — Krapp. 

"Upon  the  classification  of  words,  as  parts  of  speech,  distin- 
guished according  to  their  natures  and  uses,  depends  the  whole 
scheme  of  grammatical  science.  It  is  absurd  to  suppose  that 
the  same  words  can  never  be  used  so  differently  as  to  belong 
to  different  parts  of  speech.  It  is  absolutely  necessary  to 
classify  words,  not  according  to  their  derivation  merely,  but 
rather  according  to  their  sense  and  construction. ' ' — Goold 
Brown. 


50  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

"By  words,  a  man's  thought  i&  made  clear  to  himself;  by 
them  it  becomes  the  property  of  the  community.  By  words, 
the  thought  of  one  age  becomes  a  solid  basis  upon  which  suc- 
ceeding generations  may  build.  .  .  .  Words,  then,  imitate 

in  their  composition  the  actual  realities  of  things 

Thought  at  once  embodies  itself  in  language.  The  conception 
takes  form  in  the  term.  By  term  is  meant  a  word,  or  words, 
by  which  a  conception  is  expressed.  Words  in  their  formation 
and  changes  bear  the  living  impress  of  thought,  and  by  the 
study  of  words  we  can  often,  settle  questions  that  otherwise 
would  be  insoluble. ' '— C.  C.  Everett. 

"Names  are  word-symbols.  Knowledge  is  rendered  definite 
by  naming.  We  can  be  said  to  know  a  thing  only  when  we 
have  named  it.  We  know  only  that  which  we  can  clearly 
describe  in  words.  Names  label  things  and  enable  us  to  handle 
them  in  our  minds  without  difficulty.  They  are  symbols  of  the 
essential  features  of  things.  .  .  .  Unless  you  know  the  names 
of  things  your  knowledge  of  them  also  wholly  vanishes.  .  .  . 
By  names  we  mean  any  word  or  group  of  words  identified  with 
an  experience. ' ' — Carus. 

"The  parts  of  speech  used  in  English  occur  in  only  a  limited 
number  of  languages.  In  Chinese,  for  instance,  a  word,  no 
matter  whether  it  expresses  object,  quality,  or  action,  is  exter- 
nally treated  alike,  and  may  express  subject,  predicate,  or 
attribute.  Chinese  has  no  such  parts  of  speech  as  noun,  verb, 
adjective,  and  adverb. ' ' — Bloomfield. 

"With  regard  to  the  origin  of  language,  I  must  say  that  I 
find  nothing  on  this  point  more  satisfactory  than  the  account 
given,  Gen.  2:19,  where  we  are  told  that  'Out  of  the  ground  the 
Lord  God  formed  every  beast  of  the  field,  and  every  fowl  of 
the  air,  and  brought  them  unto  Adam  to  see  what  he  would 
call  them;  and  whatsoever  Adam  called  every  living  creature, 
that  was  the  name  thereof.  According  to  this  the  first  words 
employed  in  human  speech  were  nouns.  .  .  .  Spinoza,  in  his 
Hebrew  grammar,  published  in  1677,  says  that  all  words  in  that 
language,  except  interjections  and  conjunctions  with  one  or 
two  particles,  have  the  power  and  the  properties  of  nouns." — 
I.  B.  Choate. 

' '  Substantive  nouns  are  the  foundation  of  grammar,  and  the 
most  ancient  part  of  speech." — Blair. 

"The  alphabet  did  not  originate  until  long  after  the  genesis 
of  language.  Our  literature  did  not  begin  as  separate  words 
expressive  of  distinct  ideas,  which  then  were  welded  into  the 
phrase,  the  sentence,  the  paragraph,  but  began  as  a  vague 
whole  which  was  then  analyzed  into  these  elements.  .  .  . 


FUNCTIONS  OF  PARTS  OF  SPEECH  51 

The  sentence  is  the  unit  of  language,  that  is,  a  word  taken  by 
itself  cannot  have  a  complete  meaning,  unless  it  is  a  verb,  or 
used  with  verbal  force,  for  a  verb  is  an  unanalyzed  sentence. 
In  truth,  neither  the  noun  nor  the  verb  is  prior.  They  arise 
together,  since  both  are  essential  to  the  expression  of  a  unit 
of  meaning." — Bawden. 

THE  VERB  TO  BE 

To  be  is  a  defective  verb,  its  conjugation  being  made 
up  of  fragments  of  three  independent  verbs  which  furnish 
the  forms,  be,  am,  and  was. 

Be  is  derived  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  beon=be,  exist. 
Was  has  no  etymological  connection  with  be  or  is.    In 
its  original  sense  it  conveyed  the  idea  of  dwelling  in  a 
place. 

Eight  distinct  forms  are  found  in  the  conjugation  of 
the  verb  to  be,  namely:  be,  am,  is,  are,  was,  were,  being, 
been. 

To  be  is  (a)  a  substantive  verb  when  it  predicates  or 
affirms  actual  existence,  as  in  the  following  examples : 
Whatever  is  is  right. 
We  believe  that  God  is. 
And  Enoch  was  not.  for  God  took  him. 
Can  such  things  be? 

It  is  not  to  enjoy,  but  to  be,  that  we  long  for. 
To  be  or  not  to  be;  that  is  the  question. 
And  God  said  unto  Moses,  I  Am  that  I  Am. 
"To  be  is   (b)   a  pure  link-verb,  that  is,  a  pure  form-word, 
devoid  of  independent  meaning;  although  having  the  inflections 
of  a  verb  enables  it  to  express  distinctions  of  time  and  other 
shades  of  meaning,  as  in  he  was  here  compared  with  he  is  here." 
— H.  Sweet. 

Phrases    of   futurity    are    formed   by    combining    the 
auxiliary  verb,  be  and  the  infinitive ;  as, 
I  am  to  go  on  Monday. 

The  concert  was  to  have  been  given  last  week. 
1  'For  I'm  to  be  Queen  of  the  May." 
We  are  to  be  entertained  by  a  special  reception  com- 
mittee next  Friday  evening. 
The  next  meeting  is  to  be  held  in  the  stadium. 


52  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 


"Two  Future-equivalents  are  in  common  use,  viz.,  'To  be 
about  to — ';  'to  be  going  to  — ';  which  are  of  almost  identical 
meaning  (=  'to  be  on  the  point  of ).  They  may  be  called 
'Immediate'  Futures. 

He  is  (was)  about  to  write. 

Who  is  going  to  tell  us  a  story?"  — Onions. 


THE  VERB 

' '  The  verb  is  the  most  purely  universal  of  all  terms.  It 
implies  a  state  of  action  separate  from  all  connection  with 
individuals,  and  in  the  simplest  form.  .  .  .  'To  be'  is  the 
most  universal  term.  ...  It  represents,  however,  the  start- 
ing-point of  speculative  thought.  .  .  .  It  is  the  beginning, 
expressed  or  implied,  of  all  statement.  We  say  'I  am,'  'he  is'; 
whatever  follows  is  limitation  or  definition." — C.  C.  Everett. 

"No  one  denies  connection  to  be  a  property  of  the  verb. 
The  verb  not  only  connects  but  it  does  more;  it  declares  that 
the  connected  conceptions  co-exist  as  parts  of  one  assertion. 
For  example:  'He  is  good'  implies  two  conceptions,  i.  e.,  (1)  of 
a  particular  man  and  (2)  goodness.  The  one  is  asserted  to 
exist  in  the  other,  and  to  be  a  quality  belonging  to  it." — 
Stoddart. 

"But  in  all,  the  verb  is,  when  compared  with  other  parts  of 
speech,  the  most  universal  term.  It  solves  the  fixed,  it  connects 
those  which  had  stood  motionless  over  against  one  another.  The 
verb  is  the  life  of  the  sentence.  It  is  the  relation  between  its 
parts,  ...  So  the  verb  breaks  up  the  isolation  of  the  objects 
which  fill  the  rest  of  the  sentence,  and  brings  them  into  the 
common  system  of  action  and  reaction. — C.  C.  Everett. 

"These  two  parts  of  speech,  noun  and  verb,  suffice  to  consti- 
tute language.  To  name  an  object  by  a  noun,  and  to  affirm 
something  concerning  that  object  by  a  verb,  is  all  that  is 
needed  to  convey  thought  from  one  mind  to  another. ' ' — De  Vere. 

"The  Chinese  say  that  verbs  alone  are  living  words;  that 
nouns  are  dead  words,  and  all  other  parts  of  speech  but 
auxiliaries. ' ' — De  Vere. 

' '  This  power  of  turning  almost  any  noun  into  a  verb  has  been 
called  the  most  kingly  prerogative  of  the  English  language. ' ' 
— De  Vere. 

"The  auxiliary  verb  to  be  is  in  English,  as  in  all  languages, 
one  of  the  most  interesting  and  yet  one  of  the  most  difficult  to 
explain." — De  Vere. 

"In  English,  predication  can  only  be  expressed  by  means  of 
the  verb;  where  no  action  is  involved,  the  abstract  verb  is, 


FUNCTIONS  OF  PARTS  OF  SPEECH  53 


expressive  only  of  the  relation  of  predication  (in  the  forming 
of  an  action),  is  used." — Bloomfield. 

"The  verb  is  the  only  part  of  speech  which  is  absolutely 
essential  to  sentence  formation.  A  subject  may  be  a  pronoun, 
a  phrase,  or  a  clause,  as  well  as  a  noun,  or  it  may  be  omitted, 
as  in  imperative  sentences.  But  if  the  verb  is  lacking  there 
is  no  sentence." — Leonard. 

"The  general  relation  expressed  by  the  verb,  is  a  relation- 
ship so  immediately  conceived  by  the  mind  that  language  can 
leave  it  to  be  understood,  as  is  instanced  in  rudimentary  lan- 
guages which  have  no  verb." — Bergson  (Tr.  by  Mitchell). 


"Well  have  pronouns  from  of  old  been  looked  upon  as 
'venerable  relics  of  languages'.  Their  great  and  main  purpose 
is  to  express  personality.  Grammarians  tell  us  that  they  are, 
as  their  name  indicates,  mere  substitutes  for  the  noun,  which 
we  do  not  like  to  repeat  as  often  as  the  same  idea  is  rein- 
troduced. " — De  Vere. 

"Adverbs  sometimes  modify  nouns;  as,  he  is  fully  master  of 
the  subject.  In  such  instances  the  noun  is  almost  equivalent 
to  an  adjective  or  verb,  and  the  verb  approaches  very  near  in 
function  to  an  adjective.  Other  examples  are:  you  are  the 
very  man  I  want;  he  is  an  only  son.  Very  and  only  are 
adjectives. ' ' — H.  Sweet. 

"In  the  fundamental  parts  of  speech  we  observe  the  reap- 
pearance of  categories.  Noun  and  Adjective  reproduce  being 
and  quality,  or  substance  and  attribute.  The  active  verb  rests 
OH  the  notion  of  causality.  Other  parts  of  speech  represent 
other  rational  relations." — Bowne. 


CHAPTER  IV. 
EQUIVALENTS  OF  THE  PARTS  OF  SPEECH 

EQUIVALENT   SENTENCE  ELEMENTS 

A  single  word  or  word-group  that  performs  the 
function  of  a  Noun,  Adjective,  Adverb,  Preposition,  Con- 
junction, or  a  Sentence  is  called  an  Equivalent.  There 
are,  therefore,  six  classes  of  equivalents:  (1)  Noun-equiva- 
lents, (2)  Adjective-equivalents,  (3)  Adverb-equivalents, 
(4)  Preposition-equivalents,  (5)  Conjunction-equivalents, 
and  (6)  Sentence-equivalents. 

i 
Noun-Equivalents 

A.  Single  words: 

1.  Pronoun :  I  have  lost  the  book  that  you  gave  me. 

2.  Infinitive:   To  see  is  to  believe;  " Learn  to  labor 

and  to  wait." 

3.  Participle:   Seeing  is  believing;  "The  dying  and 

the  wounded  are  here." 

4.  Adjective:   The  wise  are  happy;  Playing  on  the 

green. 

5.  Quoted  words:  "Red"  is  an  adjective.    There  is 

no  "if"  about  it. 

B.  Phrases  with 

1.  Preposition:   (From  morning)  (to  night)  is  called 

day. 

2.  Infinitive:    (To  see  the  sun)  is  pleasant. 

3.  Gerund :    (Reading  good  books)  is  profitable. 

C.  Clauses : 

1.     Subject-word    [When  he  went]  is  not  known. 


EQUIVALENTS  OF  PARTS  OF  SPEECH        55 

2.  Subjective   complement:    Your  book   is    [where 

you  left  it]. 

3.  Object  complement:   I  know  [who  you  are]. 
D.     Sentence   (quoted) : 

1.  Pilate's  question  was,  "What  is  truth?" 

2.  He  simply  said:  "Shaw  me  the  packages." 

3.  "I  have  been  where  you  sent  me,"  was  his  reply. 

Ad  j  ective-Equivalents 

A.  Single  word: 

1.  Participle:    "The  burning  bush";  The  printed 

page.    "Let  a  sleeping  dog  lie." 

2.  Noun  in  Apposition :  You  Americans.    President 

Lincoln.  Nimrod,  the  great  hunter. 

3.  Nouns  and  Pronouns  in  the  Possessive  Case: 

His  book,  my  pencil,  your  desk,  Cicero's  ora- 
tion, a  man's  hand. 

4.  Nouns  without  "of"  — a  prepositional  phrase: 

The  measure  is  not  the  right  length. 
The  windows  are  the  same  height. 
The  liquid  was  a  dark  brown. 
A  book  the  same  size  as  this. 
What  age  is  he? 

5.  The  Infinitive : 

A  house  to  let.   A  horse  to  sell.    Sights  to  be 

seen. 

Work  to  be  done.    A  knife  to  whittle  with. 
A  staff  to  walk  with.   "The  best  is  yet  to  be." 

— Browning. 

B.  Phrases  with, 

1.  Preposition : 

A  man  (of  honor). 

The  pleasures  (of  hope). 

A  bird  (in  the  hand). 

2.  Infinitive : 

Agassiz  had  no  time  (to  make  money). 
He  had  no  mind  (to  learn  his  lessons). 


56  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

3.     Participle : 

(Believing1  his  story),  I  allowed  him  to  enter. 
(Being  afraid),  he  ran  away. 
(Having  finished  his  task),  the  student  closed 
the  book. 

C.  Clauses : 

1.  A  man  [who  perseveres]  will  succeed. 

2.  The  book  [that  I  purchased]  is  damaged. 

3.  This  is  the  house  [where  I  was  born]. 

4.  The  reason  [why  he  ran  away]  is  not  known. 

5.  The  house  [we  lived  in]  is  still  vacant. 

D.  Sentences   (quoted) : 

1.  The  shout,  "They  are  coming!"  was  heard  on  all 

sides. 

2.  His  oft  repeated  expression  of  praise,  "You  did 

well,"  is  greatly  appreciated. 

3.  Your  advice,  "Do  your  best,"  is  good. 

Adverb-Equivalents 

A.     Single  words: 

1.  Nouns  and  pronouns  as  indirect  object   (Dative 

Case). 

a.  The  children  taught  their  dog  tricks. 

b.  He  gave  his  coat  a  brushing. 

c.  Bring  me  my  hat, 

d.  The  teacher  told  them  to  go  home. 

2.  Adjectives : 

a.  He  lived  honest  and  died  poor. 

b.  "Fair  stood  the  wind  for  France/' 

c.  "Thereon  I  built  it  firm." 

3.  "Flat  adverbs":    Same  form  for  both  Adjective 

and  Adverb) : 

a.  to  work  hard,  run  fast,  play  fair. 

b.  to  stop  short,  ring  true,  aim  high. 

c.  to  serve  right,  make  blood  run  cold. 

d.  wide  open,  sound  asleep,  passing  strange. 


EQUIVALENTS  OF  PARTS  OF  SPEECH        57 

4.  Comparative  the:    In  the  following  phrases  the 

is  not  the  definite  article,  but  a  demonstrative 
adverb,  being  a  weakened  form  of  the  demon- 
strative pronoun  "that". 

a.  "the  more,  the  merrier." 

b.  "the  sooner,  the  better." 

5.  Infinitives : 

a.  He  is  striving  to  succeed. 

b.  They  all  sat  down  to  rest. 

6.  Participles : 

a.  He  reads  standing  at  his  desk. 

b.  The  boy  came  limping1  into  the  room. 

B.  Phrases  with, 

1.  Preposition : 

The  sun  rises  (in  the  east). 

2.  Infinitive : 

We  went  (to  visit  the  Tower)  of  London. 

3.  Participle : 

a.  (No  one  appearing),  we  left  the  place. 

b.  (Feeling  a  hand  on  my  shoulder)  I  turned 

round. 

C.  Clauses : 

1.  The    soldiers    stopped     [where    night    overtook 

them]. 

2.  He  labors  [that  he  may  become  rich]. 

3.  [While  you  were  speaking]  he  left  the  room. 

4.  Follow  me  [lest  you  miss  the  path]. 

NOTES  —  PRINCIPLES  —  DEFINITIONS 

A  saying  of  the  old  grammarians  is:  "Omnis  pars 
orationis  migrat  in  adverbium".  (Adverbs  can  be  made 
out  of  anything.) 

Verbs  may  be  turned  into  adverbs :  as, 

' '  Smack  went  the  whip,  and  round  went  the  wheels. ' ' 
"Tramp,  tramp,  tramp  across  the  fields  they  sped." 
"Splash,  splash  through  the  water  they  ran." 


58  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

Adverbs  may  be  made  into  verbs:  as, 

"She  could  never  away  with  me." 

"Down  with  the  tyrant." 

"He  is  not  wanted  here,  so  out  with  him. ' ' 
Adverbs  may  become  nouns  in  prepositional  phrases :  as, 

I  never  heard  that  (before  now). 

He  has  changed  his  opinion  (since  then). 

They  live  two  blocks  (from  here). 
Adverbs  are  sometimes  used  as  Adjectival  Modifiers :  as, 

The  then  president ;  the  down  train ;  a  through  ticket ; 
an  outside  passenger ;  an  off  day ;  fhe  above  statement ; 
yonder  house ;  in  after  ages. 

"Adverbs  expressing  extent  of  time,  space,  amount,  and  the 
locative  adverb  are  sometimes  called  adverbial  objectives, 
because  in  the  earlier  stages  of  the  language  they  were  inflected 
for  the  objective  case.  They  are  not  felt,  however,  to  have 
any  case  value  and  should  be  parsed  as  pure  adverbs. ' ' — Krapp. 

As  modifiers,  words,  expressing  the  qualities  of  things, 
belong  to  nouns;  those  that  represent  the  manner  of  the 
action  of  objects,  belong  to  verbs.  Thus  in  the  sentence, 
"How  sweet  the  moonlight  sleeps  upon  the  bank," 
"sweet"  is  an  Adverbial  modifier  and  not  the  Subjective 
complement. 

Rule:  Nouns  and  pronouns  in  definitive  construction 
with  verbs  and  predicates  that  call  for  the  direction  and 
end  of  motion;  and  for  measures  of  time,  distance, 
capacity,  weight,  price,  value;  and  for  the  degree  of 
difference,  function  as  Adverbial  Modifiers. 

Adverbs  may  become  nouns,  as;  today,  tomorrow, 
tonight,  yesterday;  the  how  and  the  why;  between  here 
and  there,  from  where,  of  yore,  since  then,  for  once,  from 
behind,  from  above. 

In  such  constructions  as: 
He  seems  (to  be  clever), 
He  grew  (to  be  tall), 

the  Infinitive  phrase  is  an  Adverbial  modifier  and  not  a 
Subjective  complement. 


EQUIVALENTS  OF  PARTS  OF  SPEECH        59 

"Once  or  twice  are  but  old  genitives  of  'one'  and  'two'. 
When  we  say,  'It  must  needs  be,'  we  employ  the  genitive  of 
'need',  originally  'need-es'. " — Welsh. 

"  'He  walked  a  mile.'  'It  weighs  a  pound.'  The  ideas 
expressed  by  mile  and  pound,  are  not  the  names  of  anything 
that  serves  as  either  object  or  instrument  to  the  verb.  They 
only  denote  the  manner  of  the  action,  and  define  the  meaning 
of  the  verb." — Latham. 

"The  relative  adverbs  as  and  than  may  also  be  classed  as 
subordinate  conjunctions. ' ' — Carpenter. 

EQUIVALENT  CONNECTIVES 

A.  The  following  compound  conjunctions  (phrase-con- 
junctions) perform  the  function  of  simple  conjunctions 
and  are,  therefore,  con  junction -equivalents ;  provided  that, 
granting  that,  as  soon  as,  in  order  that,  in  case  that,  etc. 

B.  The    following    compound    prepositions     (phrase- 
prepositions)    function   as   simple   prepositions   and   are, 
therefore,   preposition-equivalents:   for  the  sake  of,   in 
addition  to,  by  means  of,  in  accordance  with,  etc. 

SENTENCE-EQUIVALENTS 

A  single  word  or  a  word-group  may,  without"  having  a 
finite  verb,  infinitive  or  participle,  constitute  a  Sentence- 
equivalent;  that  is,  have  the  meaning  hut  not  the  typical 
form  of  a  sentence. 

The  following  are  examples  of  Sentence-equivalents: 

1.  Sentence-words  and  phrases: 

1.  Affirmative:    Yes,  amen,  truly,  certainly,  by  all 

means. 

2.  Negative :   No,  not  at  all,  by  no  means. 

3.  Probability:   Perhaps,  probably,  doubtless,  with- 

out doubt. 

2.  Exclamation : 

1.  Interjection:   Oh!  Alas!  Bah!  Zounds! 

2.  Word-groups:    "Me   miserable."     "A   horse!   a 

horse!  my  kingdom  for  a  horse!"  "0  my 
cousin,  shallow-hearted ! "  '  *  Oh  for  a  lodge  in 
some  vast  wilderness!" 


60  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

3.  Sentence-groups : 

1.  " Borrow,  sorrow." 

2.  "Much  cry,  little  wool." 

3.  "First  come,  first  served." 

4.  "Better  late  than  never." 

5.  "The  more,  the  merrier." 

4.  Elliptical  Sentences: 

1.  To  err  is  human,  to  forgive  divine  (is  divine). 

2.  Hence,  loathed  melancholy!  (depart  or  go  hence). 

3.  Well  done!    (It  is  well  done.) 

4.  To  arms!  To  arms!    (Run  to  your  arms.) 

5.  So  much  for  the  sun.    What  about  the  stars?    (So 

much  is  sufficient  for  our  treatment  of  the  sun. 
What  shall  we  say  about  the  stars?) 

6.  I  could,  but  I  won't  (do  it). 

7.  Good-bye.    (God  be  with  you.) 

5.  "Subjectless"  constructions: 

1.     Methinks  or  meseems.    (It  seems  to  me.) 
2.*  If  you  please,    (If  it  pleases  you.) 

3.  I  shall  act  as  seems  best  (as  (it)  seems  best  to  me). 

4.  He  came  much  sooner  than  was  expected  (than  it 

was  expected). 

5.  As  has  been  said.    (As  it  has  been  said.) 

6.  As  far  as  in  me  lies.     (As  it  lies  in  me.) 

7.  As  follows:    (As  it  (the  enumeration)  follows). 
*Note. — Historically  impersonal,  but  now  regarded  as  having 

personal  subject  you. 

' '  Ellipsis  is  a  kind  of  compensation  for  the  slowness  of 
speech,  a  kind  of  economy  in  the  use  of  linguistic  elements.  Not 
only  psychology  and  daily  speech,  but  also  historical  syntax 
proves  the  existence  of  ellipsis." — Kellner. 

"Some  sentences  omit  some  part  or  parts  which  are  neces- 
sary to  the  full  form  of  a  sentence.  These  are  called  elliptical 
sentences  ,and  an  ellipsis  is  said  to  occur.  Ellipsis  plays  a  great 
part  in  English.  In  poetical  and  rhetorical  language  it  often 
lends  dignity  and  impressiveness,  with  something  of  an  archaic 
flavor;  to  colloquial  speech  it  gives  precision  and  brevity,  and 
saves  time  and  trouble." — Onions. 


CHAPTER  V. 


IDIOMATIC  CONSTRUCTIONS 

All  languages  have  peculiar  turns  of  expression  called 
idioms.  One  of  the  difficult  tasks  for  translators  is  that 
of  putting  the  stereotyped  forms  of  one  language  kito 
the  equivalent  expressions  of  another.  "How  do  you 
do  ? "  and  '  *  He  is  well  to  do  "  are  * '  sample ' '  idioms.  Exact 
translations  are  often  impossible.  Many  of  our  idiomatic 
expressions  sometimes  seem  illogical  and  often  defy  strict 
grammatical  analysis. 

There  are  several  causes  for  idiomatic  constructions. 
Among  them  are:  (1)  a  desire  for  brevity,  (2)  a  desire 
for  ease  in  speaking,  and  for  harmony  of  sound,  (3)  a 
Desire  for  special  emphasis. 

COMPARATIVE  CONSTRUCTIONS 

Comparison  implies  the  relation  of  two  objects  in  point 
of  likeness  and  difference.  The  process  of  comparing 
extends  to  the  qualities  of  things,  persons,  events,  and 
their  relation  to  position,  magnitude,  duration,  distance, 
direction,  value,  worth,  personal  choice  or  preference, 
manner  of  behavior,  etc. 

The  language  of  comparison  includes  the  use  of  adjec- 
tives and  adverbs  in  the  comparative  degree,  the  compar- 
ative conjunctions  as,  so,  than;  the  crystallized  verbal 
expressions:  had  rather,  had  as  lief,  would  rather,  and 
the  comparative  phrases:  had  better,  would  better,  the 
better,  rather  than,  other  than,  else  than,  etc. 

The  comparative  sentence  consists  of  two  clauses :  one, 
the  subordinate  clause,  contains  the  positive  idea  from 


62  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

which,  as  the  standard,  the  comparison  is  made ;  the  other, 
the  principal  clause,  contains  the  comparative  idea. 

In  nearly  every  case  the  subordinate  clause,  and  often 
the  main  clause,  has  been  contracted  by  the  omission  of 
some  word  or  words  that  belong  to  the  full  sentence  form. 
In  the  analysis  of  such  sentences  the  omitted  elements 
should  be  supplied.  For  example: 

COMPARATIVE  SENTENCES 

My  father  is  taller  than  I  [am  tall]. 

You  have  given  him  more  than  I  [have  given  him]. 

The  storm  rages  more  fiercely  than  ever  [it  has  raged]. 

His  rudeness  is  more  apparent  than  real  [than  it  is  real] . 

He  knows  no  more  about  it  than  I  do  [=than  I  know 
about  it]. 

The  following  facts  about  the  comparative  conjunction 
''than"  should  be  carefully  noted: 

Than  is  a  subordinate  connective,  when  it  introduces  a 
dependent  sentence. 

This  dependent  sentence  is  an  Adverbial  modifier  with 
an  adjective  or  adverb  of  comparison  in  the  antecedent 
proposition. 

Than  was  originally  the  same  word  as  then,  the  adverb 
of  time.  From  its  early  relative  or  conjunctive  use,  than 
came  to  have  the  sense  of  when.  This  meaning  is  evident, 
if  we  explain  the  statement,  "My  father  is  taller  than  I," 
as  implying,  "When  I  am  tall,  my  father  is  taller." 

The  than-clause  contains  the  standard  or  positive  term 
in  the  comparison. 

"A  part  of  the  Comparative  Clause  is  often  omitted,  leaving 

only  sufficient  to  indicate  the  person  or  thing  with  which  the 

comparison  is  made.    Such  a  clause  may  be  called  a  Contracted 

Comparative  Clause. ' ' — Onions. 

Than  is  also  a  coordinate  connective,  as  noted  in  the 
following : 

"Less  judgment  than  wit  is  more  sail  than  ballast." 

He  speaks  with  no  less  eloquence  than  freedom. 

More  men  than  women  were  there. 


IDIOMATIC  CONSTRUCTIONS  63 

"It  must  be  further  noticed  that  both  as  and  than  are  con- 
junctions of  the  sort  that  can  either,  like  and,  etc.,  merely  join 
coordinates,  or,  like  when,  etc.,  attach  a  subordinate  clause  to 
what  it  depends  on.  This  double  power  sometimes  affects  case. ' ' 
— The  King's  English. 

Note. — Than  in  the  idiomatic  phrase  "than  whom"  is  to  be 
treated  as  a  Preposition.  "With  relative  pronouns,"  says 
Onions,  "the  Accusative  is  obligatory  (than  whom*  not  than 
who),  and  its  very  common  use  with  other  pronouns  bears 
witness  to  the  prepositional  character  of  than. ' ' 

The  idiomatic  auxiliary  verbal  phrases — "Had  better " 
and  "had  rather"  help  to  predicate  an  ideal  situation. 
Hence  the  auxiliary  "had"  is  a  subjunctive,  having  the 
meaning  of  "would  have",  and  the  verb-phrase  asserts 
an  aim,  a  choice,  or  a  preference ;  as, 

You  had  better  wait  a  while. 

I  had  rather  be  a  clerk  than  a  bookkeeper. 

No  attempt  should  be  made  to  analyze  these  verb- 
phrases  into  separate  parts.  Such  expressions  form  a 
comparative  predicate-verb,  taking  complements  and 
adverbial  modifiers. 

In  the  phrase  would  rather,  would  is  the  past  tense  of 
will,  and  means  "to  wish"  or  "to  desire"  to  be  or  to  do 
something. 

Rather  is  an  adverb  in  the  comparative  degree,  the 
positive  form  being  rathe  or  rath,  meaning  "coming  soon" 
or  "early";  coming  before  others  or  before  the  usual  time. 
"Rath"  is  an  adjective  in  "The  rath  primrose  that  for- 
saked  dies,"  of  Milton. 

Other  meanings  of  rather  are :  *  *  with  more  reason  " ;  "  in 
a  greater  or  less  degree";  "to  a  greater  extent";  as, 

Do  not  doctor  yourself,  go  rather  to  a  good  physician. 

I  rather  like  the  idea. 

He  said  good-bye  rather  hurriedly. 


AS 

In  origin  as  is  an  adverb.    Like  the  relative  what  it 
has  in  itself  a  twofold  meaning:    (1)  demonstrative,  and 


64  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

(2)  relative.  These  meanings  may  be  expressed  by  the 
two  phrases:  (1)  "in  that  way"  and  (2)  "in  which  way." 

Specifically  as  is  an  adverb  of  manner  or  of  degree, 
and  is  equivalent  to  the  double  phrases,  "in  the  way  in 
which"  or  "in  the  degree  in  which". 

As  is  also  used  as  a  conjunction  and  as  a  relative 
pronoun,  and,  by  some  authorities,  is  classed  as  a 
preposition. 

In  the  analysis  of  as-constructions,  the  meaning  and 
grammatical  use  of  as  will  become  more  evident,  if  it  is 
expanded  into  the  double  phrases. 

Examples 

1.  The  water  is  as  cold  as  ice:  [as  ice  is  cold]. 

The  water  is  cold  (in  the  degree)   (in  which)  ice  is 
cold. 

2.  He  treated  himj  as  his  own  son:    [as  he  treated  his 

own  son] . 

He  treated  him  (in  the  way)  (in  which)  he  treated  his 
own  son. 

3.  He  was  employed  as  bookkeeper :    [as  a  bookkeeper  is 

employed] . 

He  was  employed   (in  the  way,   (in  which)   a  book- 
keeper is  employed. 

As  is  used  with  prepositions  to  define  the  reference  of 
the  preposition;  e.  g.,  as  for,  as  to,  as  of,  as  against,  as 
between,  as  touching,  as  concerning,  etc.;  and  with  the 
adverb  "yet"  in  the  adverbial  phrase  as  yet. 

The  phrase-prepositions,  as  to  and  as  for,  are  used  to 
introduce  topics  of  special  reference;  e.  g.,  "As  for  me 
and  my  house,  we  will  serve  the  Lord". — Bible. 

When  as  follows  same  and  such  and  refers  to  an  ante- 
cedent noun  or  pronoun,  it  is  a  relative  pronoun;  when 
it  is  used  in  the  sense  of  "because"  it  is  a  conjunction. 

The  antecedent  of  as  as  a  relative  pronoun  is  often  the 
.whole  statement  conceived  of  as  a  fact.  It  is  then  equiv- 


IDIOMATIC  CONSTRUCTIONS  65 

alent  to  "a  thing  which"  or  "a  fact  which";  e.  g.   "He 
was  an  Englishman,  as  they  perceived  by  his  accent". 

SO 

Historically  so  is  a  demonstrative  adverb  and  is  equiv- 
alent in  meaning  to  the  phrases:  "in  that  way",  "in  that 
degree",  "to  that  extent".  The  full  significance  of  this 
particle  becomes  clear  when  it  is  expanded  into  these 
adverbial  phrases.  Its  correlate  is  as. 

Examples 

James  is  as  tall  as  John  (idea  of  equality). 

Charles  is  not  so  studious  as  his  sister  (idea  of 
inequality). 

If  you  believe  it,  say  so  (in  that  way). 

As  two  is  to  four  so  is  one  to  two  (in  the  way)  (in  that 
way). 

When  used  in  pairs,  as — as,  so — as,  and  as — so  are 
called  correlative  or  corresponding  conjunctions,  because 
they  form  but  one  connection,  and  have  a  reciprocal 
relation  to  each  other. 

So  is  used  as  an  expletive  to  introduce  a  fact;  e.  g. 
"So  you  have  been  in  Rome,  have  you?"  It  is  also  used 
with  past  participles  to  form  compound  adjectives;  as, 
"so-called,"  "so-styled,"  "so-named,"  etc. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  uses  of  so  in  stereotyped 
phrases:  "and  so  on"  or  "and  so  forth"  (=and  other 
things) ;  "so  to  say"  or  "so  to  speak"  (=if  one  may  say 
or  speak  thus) ;  "so  be  it"  (—let  it  be  in  that  way). 

As  and  So 

"The  radical  meaning  of  'so'  (Early  English  'swa')  is  'in 
that  way';  and  the  radical  meaning  of  'as'  (which  is  a  con- 
traction of  an  emphatic  form  of  'so'  (Early  English  'al-swa', 
'also,'  'als,'  'as'),  is  'in  which  way',  or  'in  that  way'.  Con- 
sequently, 'as'  has  the  Demonstrative  meaning  of  'so',  besides 
having  its  own  Eelative  meaning." — E.  A.  Abbott. 


66  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

"The  purely  adverbial  function  of  as  is  limited  to  its  use 
in  the  beginning  of  a  sentence,  especially  where  the  correlate 
so  or  as  is  used;  it  is  then  called  an  antecedent  or  demonstrative 
adverb.  In  other  cases  it  is  a  conjunctive  adverb;  while  in 
some  instances  it  is  almost  a  preposition  or  a  pronoun.  It  is 
used  most  frequently  with  its  correlatives,  same,  such,  so,  as, 
sometimes  abbreviating  an  expression  or  allowing  for  an  ellipsis, 
as  in  the  following: 

"As  we  live,  so  we  die. 

"Such  a  one  as  he  cannot  succeed. 

"Thou  shalt  love  thy  neighbor  as  [thou  lovest]  thyself. 

"He  put  it  off  as  long  as  [putting  it  off  was]  possible." 

— Standard  Dictionary. 

"As  and  than  are  properly  conjunctions,  and  take  the  same 
case  after  them  as  before.  But  those  words  must  be  rightly 
understood,  (a)  'I  love  you  more  than  him,'  means  something 
different  from  (b)  'I  love  you  more  than  he.'  It  must  be  borne 
in  mind  that  the  'case  before'  is  that  of  the  word  that  is 
compared  with  the  'case  after',  and  not  necessarily  that  of 
the  word  actually  next  before  in  position.  In  (a)  you  is 
compared  with  him;  in  (b)  I,  not  you,  is  compared  with  he." — 
The  King's  English. 

"The  case  of  a  noun  or  noun-equivalent,"  says  Onions,  "fol- 
lowing than  is  determined  by  mentally  supplying  the  verb." 

CONSTRUCTIONS  WITH  "IT" 

The  impersonal  pronoun  "It"  was  originally  a  demon- 
strative adjective,  having  the  form  "hit",  and  referring 
to  "that  person  or  thing".  As  a  demonstrative  pronoun, 
"it"  represents  definitely  some  noun  (person  or  thing) 
or  noun-equivalent.  As  an  indefinite  pronoun,  "it"  has 
a  vague  meaning, — that  of  a  mere  noun-equivalent  for 
a  case,  situation,  condition,  plan,  reason,  or  an  act,  etc. 
The  following  classification  with  examples  includes  the 
most  common  uses  of  "It". 

1.  Conventional  or  introductory  Subject:  the  content 
being  wholly  in  the  verb  or  predicate  to  which  it 
is  attached. 

It  is  raining ;  It  thundered. 
It  is  nine  o'clock. 
It  has  been  a  warm  day. 
It  says  so  in  the  book. 


IDIOMATIC  CONSTRUCTIONS  67 

It  is  too  early  to  start. 

How  far  is  it  to  your  house  ? 

It  was  a  tiresome  journey. 

It  was  the  night  before  Christmas. 

2.  Formal   or  provisional   Subject,   the   real   Subject 

being  an  antecedent  phrase  or  clause : 
It  is  hard  (to  do  right). 
It  is  good  [for  us  to  be  here] . 
It  hurts  me  (to  write). 
It  is  evident  [that  a  mistake  was  made]. 
It  is  better  (to  suffer  wrong)  than  (to  do  wrong). 
It  is  the  best  [that  I  have]. 
What  is  it  (to  be  a  gentleman)  ? 
It  seems  [that  you  were  right] . 

3.  Introductory  "It  is"  to  emphasize  Nouns,  Phrases 

and  Clauses: 

It  was  Stevenson  who  wrote  ' '  Treasure  Island ' '. 
It  was  here  that  the  accident  happened. 
It  was  (on  this  condition)  that  I  went. 
It  was  (in  vain)  that  we  strove  to  advance. 
It  is  (with  many  regrets)  that  we  take  our  leave. 
It  was  on  Monday  that  we  called. 
It  is  [when  sorrow  comes]  that  one  needs  friends. 

4.  As  predicate  of  any  gender  or  person  with  the  verb 

"to  be". 

It  is  I :  it  is  they :  who  is  it? 
It  was  they  who  told  me. 
It  is  the  King  of  England. 
If  it  be  you,  say  so. 
Who  was  it  that  said  so? 
It  was  you  that  he  laughed  at. 
•5.     As  formal  Object: 

The  cars  are  not  running;  let's  "foot  it"  to  town. 

If  you  go,  you  will  have  to  rough  it. 

"They  frolic  it  along." — Cowper. 

"Come  and  trip  it  as  you  go." — Milton. 

* '  Courage,  father,  fight  it  out. ' ' — Shakespeare. 

You  cannot  lord  it  over  me. 


68  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 


"  'It  is  raining'  is  a  type  of  the  impersonal  judgment,  and 
involves  nothing  more  than  the  interjectional  judgment  of  per- 
ception, as  in  'wolf! '  or  'fire! '  which  is  a  type  of  the  linguistic 
judgment.  What  is  the  'it'?  Nothing  is  meant  by  the  'it'. 
Nothing  in  mind  correspends  to  it.  Its  presence  is  due  to  a 
mere  habit  of  language.  The  linguistic  convention  of  subject 
and  predicate  has  become  so  thoroughly  established,  that  any 
other  expression  seems  awkward." — Pillsbury. 

"In  the  sentence:  'It  is  good  for  us  to  be  here,'  the  infini- 
tive phrase  is  a  Noun-equivalent  and  not  an  Adverb-equivalent; 
the  order,  for  -f-  noun  or  pronoun  +  infinitive  is  invariable. ' ' — 
Onions. 


INDEPENDENT  SENTENCE  ELEMENTS 

An  independent  sentence  element  is  a  word  or  word- 
group  that,  although  accompanying  a  sentence,  has  no 
real  grammatical  relation  to  any  part  of  it.  Its  function 
is  rhetorical  rather  than  grammatical. 

The  following  examples  are  some  of  the  most  common 
types  of  expression  said  to  be  in  absolute  or  independent 
construction : 

1.  Direct  address: 

John,  please  bring  me  my  coat. 

Stars,  hide  your  fires ! 

0  my  country,  what  a  wound  did  you  then  receive ! 

The  boy — oh,  where  was  he? 

0  death,  where  is  thy  sting? 

2.  Mere  introductory  words  : 
There  is  a  green  pine  yonder. 

It  is  I.    It  is  a  friend.     "It  was  the  night  before 

Christmas." 

That  you  did  your  best  seems  certain. 
Well,  what  can  you  say  for  yourself? 
Now,  under  those  conditions  ought  you  to  go? 
Why,  you  were  there  and  heard  the  story. 

3.  Other  independent  words  and  phrases  used  in  con- 

nection with  sentences  are : 
Namely,  to  repeat,  in  short,  of  course,  as  a  matter 
of  fact,  etc. 


IDIOMATIC  CONSTRUCTIONS  69 

4.    Parenthetical  phrases  and  sentences : 

The  affair,  (to  be  sure),  turned  out  unfortunately. 
His  rudeness,  (strange  to  say),  was  bearable. 
The  house,  (as  I  have  heard),  is  haunted. 
The  bill,  (thanks  to  your  generosity),  is  paid. 

EXPLETIVES 

"The  expletive  words  it,  that,  there,  are  used  to  introduce 
sentences;  and  the  expletive  for,  is  used  to  introduce  the  infini- 
tive with  its  objective  subject." — Holbrook. 

It 

"The  pronoun  'it'  is  employed  merely  as  an  expletive,  with- 
out reference  to  a  particular  thing,  as  in  Milton's  lines:  'Not 
lording  it  over  God's  heritage',  and,  'Come  and  trip  it  as  you 
go';  and  in  Shakespeare,  'I'll  queen  it  no  inch  farther',  (Win- 
ter's Tale).— De  Vere. 

There 

Pillsbury  has  pointed  out  that  "there"  has  become  a 
purely  formal  or  conventional  word  to  introduce  a 
sentence  when  no  reference  to  space  is  intended.  Its  use 
also  prevents  repetition  of  the  usual  subject-predicate 
order.  Spatial  appreciation  is  involved  in  all  the  forms 
of  judgment,  though  not  made  explicit  in  the  spoken  or 
written  word. 

There:   Subjective  Complement 

"  'There  was  a  man  there.' 

"  'There'  (1)  is  an  independent  indefinite  adverb,  used  to 
introduce  the  subject,  man. 

"  'There*  (2)  is  an  independent  adverb  of  place,  used  as 
subjective  complement  of  the  verb,  was". — Eowe  and  Webb. 

NEGATIVE  CONSTRUCTIONS 

The  term  " negative"  and  " negation"  are  derived  from 
a  Latin  verb,  negare,  which  means  "to  say  no".  In  the 


70  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

English  sentence  negative  ideas  are  designated  by  such 
words  as,  'no,'  'not,'  never';  'nobody,'  'no  one,'  'none'; 
'not  any',  'nothing';  'nowhere,'  'nowise,'  'not  at  all,'  etc.; 
also  by  words  compounded  with  the  Latin  adverb  'non'; 
as,  non-existence,  non-essential,  non-conductor,  etc.,  and 
other  words  having  a  negative  prefix  or  suffix. 

Examples 

The  pupils  did  not  write  their  lessons. 

You  cannot  enter  the  room  now. 

Mind  is  not  a  material  substance. 

There  is  no  book  on  the  shelf. 

Nobody  is  here,  but  that  is  nothing. 

Neither  you  nor  I  can  go. 

The  ground  is  not  damp. 

I  am  not  at  all  surprised. 

You  may  never  see  it  again. 

It  was  an  unimportant  event. 

In  the  following  stanza  every  line  contains  one  or  more 
words  of  negative  meaning: 

"Clay,  not  dead  but  soulless, 

Though  no  mortal  man  would  choose  thee, 
An  immortal  no  less 
Deigns  not  to  refuse  thee."  — Byron. 

A  purely  negative  statement  implies  at  the  same  time 
some  affirmative  judgment  that  represents  the  reality; 
as,  "That  is  not  square,  it  is  oblong". 

The  following  are  characteristic  definitions  of  negative 
propositions : 

"A  negative  proposition  asserts  a  difference  or  discrepancy. " 
— Jevons. 

"Negative  is  only  the  affirmation  of  difference  or  exclusion.'7 
— Bowen. 

"To  affirm  and  to  deny  are  two  mutually  symmetrical  acts. 
The  first  establishes  a  relation  of  agreement;  the  second,  a 
relation  of  disagreement  between  a  subject  and  an  attribute." 
— Bergson  (Tr.  Mitchell). 


IDIOMATIC  CONSTRUCTIONS  71 

In  a  negative  proposition  the  predicate  is  denied  of 
the  subject.  As  "is"  is  the  sign  of  a  positive  proposition, 
so  the  words  "is  not"  become  the  sign  of  a  negative  prop- 
osition; as, 

"The  ground  is  damp."  "The  ground  is  not  damp," 
in  which  "is"  is  the  copula  and  "not  damp"  the  predi 
cate-idea. 

"The  adverb  'not'  in  I  do  not  think  so  is  a  sentence-modi- 
fier serving  to  deny  or  negative  the  connection  between  the 
subject  'I'  and  the  predicate  *  think  so'.  Not  is  joined  on  to 
the  unmeaning  form-word  do,  thus  distributing  the  negation 
over  the  whole  sentence." — H.  Sweet. 

"Negation  aims  at  some  one,  and  not  only,  like  a  purely 
intellectual  operation,  at  some  thing.  It  is  of  a  pedagogical  and 
social  nature.  It  sets  straight  or  rather  warns, — the  person 
warned  and  set  straight  being,  possibly  by  a  kind  of  doubling, 
the  very  person  who  speaks." — Bergson  (Tr.  Mitchell). 

"A  positive  notion  of  a  negative  object  or  of  a  pure  nega- 
tion, is  impossible.  A  negative  object  or  negative  term  indi- 
cates only  some  real  or  possible  object  or  objects  in  a  negative 
relation. ' ' — Porter. 

' '  Thus,  while  affirmation  bears  directly  on  the  thing,  negation 
aims  at  the  thing  only  indirectly,  through  an  interposed 
affirmation.  An  affirmative  proposition  expresses  a  judgment  on 
an  object;  a  negative  proposition  expresses  a  judgment  on  a 
judgment.  Negation,  therefore,  differs  from  affirmation  prop- 
erly so  called  in  that  it  is  an  affirmation  of  the  second  degree; 
it  affirms  something  of  an  affirmation,  which  itself  affirms  some- 
thing of  an  object." — Bergson  (Tr.  Mitchell). 

"Prom  the  point  of  view  of  our  knowledge  in  general  .  .  . 
the  peculiar  function  of  negative  propositions  is  simply  to 
prevent  error." — Kant  (Quot.  by  Bergson). 

QUOTATIONS  AS  OBJECT  COMPLEMENT 

A  quotation,  be  it  in  form  a  single  word,  a  phrase,  a 
sentence,  or  a  whole  paragraph,  serves  usually  as  an 
Object  complement  to  a  verb  of  saying  or  asking  expressed 
or  implied.1 

The  normal  order  for  introducing  a  sentence  as  a  direct 
quotation  is:  (1)  a  rhythmic  part  of  the  quotation,  con- 
sisting of  a  phrase  or  a  part  of  a  phrase;  (2)  the  intro- 
ducing phrase  of  saying  or  asking,  "he  said"  or  "said 


72  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

he",  (the  inverted  order  being  more  common) ;  (3)  a 
resumption  and  completion  of  the  quoted  words. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  matter  under  quotation  marks 
brings  in  a  new  rhythm,  as  it  nearly  always  belongs  to  a 
different  personality ;  and  if  the  passage  is  of  any  length, 
the  "sample"  phrase  comes  first.  This  phrase  is  some- 
times repeated  if  the  injected  introductory  words  are 
explanatory  and  more  numerous  than  usual.  One  of 
Macaulay's  sentences  will  serve  to  illustrate  this  form: 

"I  never,"  said  Knox,  when  he  introduced  Schitab 
Roy,  covered  with  blood  and  dust,  to  the  English  function- 
aries assembled  in  the  factory,  "I  never  saw  a  native  fight 
so  before." 

Other  typical  forms  of  quotations  may  be  seen  in 
Lesson  21. 

In  biography  where  the  quoted  passages  are  very  fre- 
quent, and  in  texts  in  which  long  citations  are  made  by 
way  of  showing  examples,  the  quoted  matter  is  usually 
printed  in  smaller  type,  and  so  no  injected  phrase  is 
needed.2 

"The  moulds  in  which  conversation  is  cast,"  says 
Esenwein,  "are  of  forms  as  various  as  those  of  everyday 
speech,  but  the  manner  of  reporting  them  requires  some 
art.  .  .  .  Do  not  think  it  necessary  to  put  'he  saids' 
after  every  remark  made  by  a  character.  .  .  .  Use 
some  ingenuity  in  getting  away  from  conventional  forms. ' ' 

The  following  are  some  of  the  more  common  equivalents 
for  verbs  of  saying  and  asking:  stated,  declared,  re- 
marked, observed;  inquired,  queried,  questioned,  inter- 
rogated. 

'For  exceptions  (as  Subject)   see  Lesson  21:8. 
2  Macaulay,    however,    uses    such    injected    phrase.      (See    his 
essay  on  " Gladstone  on  Church  and  State".) 

INDIRECT  NARRATION 

Present-day  English,  like  highly  inflected  languages,  as 
Latin  and  Greek,  has  a  well  defined  idiom  in  reported 


IDIOMATIC  CONSTRUCTIONS  73 

speech  called  "direct  and  indirect  discourse".  The 
thoughts  and  sayings  of  another  must  be  reported  in  one 
of  two  ways:  (1)  directly  in  the  form  of  a  quotation, 
or  (2)  indirectly  in  a  revised  form  of  the  original 
expression. 

"The  essential  character  of  Indirect  Discourse  is,  that 
the  language  of  some  other  person  than  the  writer  or 
speaker  is  compressed  into  a  kind  of  Substantive  Clause. ' ' 

In  both  these  forms  of  narration  the  speaker  or  writer 
endeavors  to  report  what  some  one  —  the  speaker  himself 
or  some  one  else  —  has  said,  thought,  or  resolved.  When 
the  indirect  form  is  used  the  reporter  is  expected  to  pre- 
serve the  original  meaning,  and  adhere  to  the  linguistic 
principles  by  which  the  direct  form  of  expression  may  be 
correctly  transferred  to  the  indirect. 

The  following  examples  will  serve  to  show  what 
changes  are  likely  to  occur  in  (1)  the  order  of  words, 
(2)  the  form  of  the  pronouns,  (3)  the  tense  of  the  verbs, 
(4)  the  omission,  addition,  or  substitution  of  words,  when 
the  narrator  uses  with  good  reason  the  indirect  instead  of 
the  direct  form. 

DIRECT  NARRATION  (Original  Form) 

1.  "I  can  tell  you  a  different  story,"  remarked  a 
by-stander. 

2.  "Oh,  Mary,  where  is  my  hat?"  asked  her  brother. 

3.  "I  shall  be  pleased  to  go  with  you  tomorrow,  if 
the  weather  will  permit,"  said  my  friend. 

4.  "I  will  pay  all  the  expenses  myself,"  I  insistently 
urged,  as  we  parted. 

5.  The  pupils  were  asking  for  their  grades.    ' '  I  cannot 
tell  you  now,"  replied  the  teacher.    "Wait  awhile  longer 
and  then  I  will  tell  you." 

6.  I   overheard  Joe   saying:     "My  father  died  last 
night." 

7.  "The  fact  is,  a  man  can  do  anything  if  he  is  in  the 
House,  and  he  can  do  nothing  if  he  is  not,"  said  Undy. 


74  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

INDIRECT  NARRATION  (Revised  Form) 

1.  A  by-stander  remarked  that  he  could  tell  them  a 
different  story. 

2.  Her  brother  asked  Mary  where  his  hat  was. 

3.  My  friend  said  he  would  be  pleased  to  go  with  me, 
if  the  weather  would  permit. 

4.  As  we  parted  I  was  still  insisting  that  I  would  pay 
all  the  expenses. 

5.  The  teacher,  replying  to  her  pupils  who  had  asked 
for  their  grades,  said  she  could  not  tell  them  then  but 
bade  them  wait  awhile  longer,  and  then  she  Avould  tell 
them. 

6.  I  overheard  Joe  say  that  his  father  had  died  on  the 
previous  night. 

7.  Undy  said  a  man  could  do  anything  if  he  were  in 
the  House,  and  nothing  if  out  of  it. 

"It  will  be  noticed  that  Indirect  Narration  is  a  necessary 
introduction  to  Precis-Writing,  which,  may  be  denned  as  the 
expression,  in  as  few  words  as  possible,  of  the  information  con- 
tained in  bulkier  form.  The  student  must  always  be  prepared 
to  use  his  judgment  regarding  what  is  essential  in  the  direct 
quotation,  and  what  is  superfluous:  no  exact  rules  can  be 
given." — J.  M.  Dixon,  "English  Composition". 

THE  IMPERSONAL  VERB 

A  predicate-verb  having  "it"  for  its  Subject-word  is 
called  an  "impersonal  verb";  as,  "it  rains";  "it  thun- 
ders"; "it  is  hot";  it  is  foggy",  etc.  These  forms  of 
expression  are  employed  to  describe  the  conditions  or 
operations  of  nature.  In  such  sentences  "it"  is  not  a 
pronoun,  but  an  expletive,  or  an  introductory  word  added 
to  keep  the  form  of  the  sentence  regular.  As  has  been 
said:  "Nothing  is  meant  by  the  'it'.  Nothing  in  mind 
corresponds  to  it.  Its  presence  is  due  to  a  mere  habit 
of  language." 

In  these  examples  the  verbs  "rains"  and  "thunders" 
are  said  to  be  impersonal,  but  they  become  personal  in 


IDIOMATIC  CONSTRUCTIONS  75 

another    context,    as    may    be    seen    in    the    following 
sentences  : 

"The  Lord  rained  upon  Sodom  .  .  .  brimstone  and 
fire.  "—Bible. 

"The  glory  of  God  thunder eth. "— Ib. 

' '  Canst  thou  thunder  with  voice  like  him  ? ' ' — Ib. 

Another  instance  of  the  impersonal  verb  appears  in 
modern  English  in  the  archaic  phrase  "methinks"  (past 
"methought"),  which  occurs  only  in  poetry.  Originally 
"me"  (now  joined  for  convenience  with  the  verb)  was 
in  the  Dative  case  and  must  be  so  regarded  now,  the 
phrase  being  equivalent  to  "to  me  it  seems,"  (or 
"appears"). 

The  student  will  do  well  to  remember  that  "methinks" 
is  not  the  same  as  "I  think".  For  the  verb  "think"  in 
"methinks"  is  intransitive  and  means  "to  seem'  or  to 
"appear",  that  is,  "to  imagine";  while  in  "I  think",  the 
verb  is  transitive  and  means  "to  say  to  one's  self",  thus 
requiring  a  direct  object  (Accusative). 

As  a  grammatical  element  "methinks"  is  equivalent 
to  the  phrase  "in  imagination",  and  is  therefore  to  be 
treated  as  an  adverbial ;  as,  "  Methought  I  saw  him  fall ' ' 
is  the  same  as  "In  imagination  I  saw  him  fall". 

Many  of  the  impersonal  verbs  that  occur  in  Shakespeare 
now  take  the  personal  form,  e.  g. 

"This  likes  me  well. "—Hamlet. 

"Will  't  please  you  go?"— Two  Gentlemen  of  Verona. 

"It  grieves  me  for  the  death  of  Claudia." — M.  for  M. 

Today  there  is  a  natural  preference  for  the  order:  (1) 
personal  subject,  (2)  verb,  (3)  object,  where  possible. 
Thus  it  is  now  regular  to  say,  "I  like  it."  "Will  you 
please  go?"  "You  grieve  me."  "I  am  grieved  by  your 
conduct." 

Note. — "The  true  impersonal  use  of  'please',  without  gram- 
matical   subject    any    kind,    has   survived    in    'if   you   please ', 

where  'you'  is  historically  not  the  subject  of  'please',  but  a 

dative  case  dependent  on  it." — Onions. 


CHAPTER  VI. 


SPECIAL  WORD  CONSTRUCTIONS 

The  function  that  a  word  performs  in  a  sentence  deter- 
mines its  classification  as  a  part  of  speech.  The  same 
word  may  be  used  as  one  part  of  speech  in  one  sentence, 
and  another  part  of  speech  in  another. 

The  following  list  of  special  words  will  serve  to 
illustrate  this  principle  of  the  classification  of  words  by 
function. 


1.  Adjective :  a  rose,  a  tree,  an  apple,  an  orange. 

2.  Preposition  (on,  in,  to,  into) : 

to  go  a-begging;  to  set  the  clock  a-going;  once  a 
year;  to  go  afoot;  to  go  a-shore;  to  earn  a  dollar 
a  day. 

Note. — The  preposition  a  is  a  "worn  down"  form  of  on. 

3.  Phrase  uses  (as  adjective  or  adverb) : 

now-a-days,  a  few,  a  great  many,  a  good  many, 
many  a  flower,  what  a  loss".  "A  many  merry 
men. " — Shakespeare. 

AGO 

1.  Adjective:  Ago  is  used  as  an  adjective  to  qualify 
some  noun  of  time,  expressed  or  understood.  It 
is  derived  from  the  archaic  form  agone,  meaning 
'  *  gone  by  " ; ' '  by-gone  " ;  ' '  past '  \  It  always  follows 
its  noun: 

(a)  It  happened  an  hour  ago. 

(b)  Years  ago  I  heard  that  story. 

(c)  Some  time  ago  we  saw  him  leave  the  house. 


SPECIAL  WORD  CONSTRUCTIONS  77 

2.  Adverb  (In  the  past,  since) ;  as, 

(a)  "Poor   old   lady,    she   is    dead   long   ago. — 

Holmes. 

(b)  The  miser  was  dead  and  buried  long  ago. 

3.  Noun:    "In  the   life   and  warmth   of  long   ago." — 

Lowell. 

ABOVE 

1.  Adjective  (Position;  attribute  of  things  in  space) ;  as, 

(a)  The  above  explanation  will  suffice. 

(b)  In  the  exercises  above  there  is  a  good  example. 

(c)  The  heavens  are  above,  the  waters,  below. 

2.  Noun :   The  above  will  show  what  is  meant. 

3.  Adverb :   The  leaves  are  green  above. 

4.  Preposition  (Vertically  over,  in  excess  of) ;  as, 

(a)  The  clouds  are  above  the  mountains. 

(b)  Our  blessings  are  above  measure. 

(c)  The  moral  law  is  above  the  civil. 

5.  Phrase  use:    above  all,  above  the  rest,  above-board, 

above-named,  etc. 

ANY 

1.  Adjective  (one,  or  a  portion  of) ;  as, 

(a)  Have  you  any  food? 

(b)  Any  person  may  enter  the  building. 

(c)  Can  any  good  come  from  that? 

2.  Adverb  (somewhat,  in  the  least,  at  all) ;  as, 

(a)  We  cannot  remain  any  longer. 

(b)  Can  you  drive  any  nearer? 

3.  Pronoun  (one  or  more  persons,  things,  or  portions) ; 

as, 

(a)  Any  of  the  books  will  do. 

(b)  The  case  was  unknown  to  any,  but  those  two 

only. 

(c)  They  offered  him  money  but  he  would  not 


78  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

take  any. 

4.     Phrase  use :  at  any  rate,  in  any  case,  any-how,  any- 
way, anywhere,  etc. 

ALL 

1.  Adjective  (the  entire  quantity  or  extent  of) ;  as, 

All  day;  all  America;  all  wisdom. 

2.  Noun  (the  whole  collectively,  entire  amount) ;  as, 

(a)  "All  is  God,  and  God  is  all." 

(b)  All  he  had  was  lost  in  the  fire, 

(c)  All  went  well  with  him. 

3.  Adverb  (wholly;  entirely;  quite);  as, 

(a)  All  at  once  the  lights  went  out. 

(b)  They  were  dressed  all  in  white. 

(c)  That  will  be  all  the  better  for  us. 

4.  Phrase  use :  after  all,  for  good  and  all,  at  all,  all  in  all, 

not  at  all,  once  for  all,  all  along,  all  but  (nearly, 
almost),  etc. 

BETTER 

1.  Verb  (To  make  better;  improve  conditions) ;  as, 

(a)  He  tried  to  better  his  position. 

(b)  If  you  work  hard  you  can  better  yourself. 

2.  Adjective  (Excelling  in  desirable  qualities) ;  as, 

(a)  A  better  plan  would  produce  better  results. 

(b)  His  method,  better  in  many  respects  than 

mine,  was  adopted. 

(c)  That  course  was  probably  better  for  you. 

3.  Noun  (Whatever  is  better;  advantage;  superiority); 

as, 

(a)  "There  is  no  hope  of  better  left  for  him." — 

Tennyson. 

(b)  The  merchant  made  a  change  for  the  better. 

(c)  In  the  trade  he  got  the  better  of  the  bargain. 


SPECIAL  WORD  CONSTRUCTIONS  79 

4.  Adverb  (Comparative  of  well;  in  a  superior  manner 

or  degree) ;  as, 

(a)  "We  know  better  than  we  do." — Emerson. 

(b)  The  pupils  understand  English  better  than 

Latin. 

(c)  He  has  a  better  trained  mind  than  hand. 

5.  Phrase  use:  to  be  better  off;  to  think  better  of;  to 

get  the  better  of. 

BUT 

1.  Conjunction    (Radical  meaning  of  but  is  "be-out", 

that  is  "without"  or  "except) ;  as, 

(a)  The  family  went  to  church  but  John  stayed 

at  home. 

(b)  I  want  to  read  the  book  but  cannot  do  so  now. 

2.  Preposition    (Leaving   out;   with   the   exception   of; 

except;  barring) ;  as, 

(a)  No  one  would  have  thought  of  it  but  him. 

(b)  We  brought  everything  but  the  box  of  books. 

(c)  He  does  nothing  but  read  all  day. 

3.  Adverb  (Only,  merely,  simply) ;  as, 

(a)  There  is  but  one  God. 

(b)  The  lecturer  made  but  little  impression  upon 

is  audience. 

4.  Noun:     He  went  about  his  task  without  any  ifs  or 

buts   (verbal  objections.) 

5.  Pronoun  (Who  not,  after  a  negation  or  interrogative 

by  the  omission  of  "who"  or  "that") ;  as, 

(a)  There  is  no  one  but  would  have  done  the 

same  thing. 

(b)  "What  heart  was  there,  but  felt  the  pang  of 

disappointment. ' ' 

6.  Phrase  use :    all  but  (almost) ;  but  that  (except  for 

the  fact);  cannot  but  (can  do  nothing  except; 
as,  We  cannot  but  believe  it;  i.  e.  We  can  do 
nothing  except  to  believe  it) . 


80  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

Note. — "The  word  'but'  is  often  used  for  'who  not'.  It  may 
hence  be  called  the  negative  relative.  Thus  Scott  has:  'There 
breathes  not  clansman  of  my  line,  but  (who  not)  would  have 
given  his  life  for  mine'." — Meiklejohn. 

DO 

1.  Verb  (to  act;  to  execute;  to  finish,  etc.) ;  as, 

(a)  To  do  work;  to  do  good;  to  do  evil. 

(b)  What  shall  we  do  with  him? 

2.  Auxiliary  (used  in  interrogative  or  negative  clauses) ; 

as, 

(a)  Do  you  see  that  ship  in  the  offing  ? 

(b)  I  do  not  think  you  should  go  now. 

3.  Substitute    (used  to   avoid  repeating  the  foregoing 

predicate-verb) ;  as,  I  do  not  believe  as  some  do, 
that  "Whatever  is,  is  right". 

4.  Phrase  use :   do-all  (a  servant) ;  to  out-do  (surpass) ; 

to  do, over  (repeat);  a-do  (fuss,  trouble). 
In  the   expression   "How   do  you  do?"   the  first  do  is  the 
auxiliary;   the  second  is  the  main  verb  derived  from  the   Old 
English  verb  dugan,  which  means  "to  be  worth,"  or  "be  fit". 

ELSE 

1.  Adverb  (In  another  manner,  otherwise,  besides) ;  as, 

"Thou  desirest    .     .    .    not  sacrifice  else  would  I 
give  it." 

2.  Adjective      (Other  than   the  person  or  thing  men- 

tioned) ;  as, 

(a)  Who  else  is  coming? 

(b)  What  else  could  he  do? 

(c)  Head  me  something  else. 

(d)  All  else  of  earth  may  perish. 

(e)  Let  me  have  somebody  else's  book. 

ENOUGH 

1.     Adjective  (sufficient  to  satisfy  desire  or  expectation) ; 
as, 


SPECIAL  WORD  CONSTRUCTIONS  81 

(a)  There  is  not  enough  heat  in  the  room. 

(b)  He  says  he  has  time  enough  and  to  spare. 

2.  Pronoun :  Have  you  any  bread  ?  We  have  enough  for 

the  present. 

3.  Noun :    We  have  had  enough  of  wandering. 

4.  Adverb :    He  was  glad  enough  to  go  with  us. 

5.  Interjection:   Enough!     ("Stop";  "that  will  do"). 

EVEN 

1.  Verb  (To  make  even,  or  level) ;  as, 

The  boys  tried  to  even  the  load. 

2.  Adjective  (Smooth;  level;  uniform);  as, 

(a)  We  all  now  have  an  even  chance. 

(b)  The  foundation  is  even  with  the  ground, 

3.  Adverb  (To  a  like  degree;  exactly;  fully;  quite;  used 

to  express  emphasis,  surprise,  concession,  or  exten- 
sion to  what  might  not  have  been  expected) ;  a&, 

(a)  There  was  harmony  even  to  the  end  of  the 

session. 

(b)  I  am  not  even  acquainted  with  him. 

(c)  It  is  intelligible  even  to  a  child. 

(d)  It  is  even  as  you  say. 

(e)  I,  even  I  have  been  able  to  do  as  much. 

FOR 

1.  Preposition  (On  account  of;  with  reference  to;  in  the 

stead  or  place  of) ;  as, 

(a)  He  was  respected  for  his  great  learning. 

(b)  This  is  no  place  for  you. 

(c)  They  gave  ten  dollars  for  one  share. 

(d)  It  is  time  for  (the  work  to  be  finished). 

2.  Conjunction  (a)  Subordinate,  (b)  Coordinate:  (Intro- 

ducing a  clause  of  cause,  explanation,  or  relation- 
ship) ;  as, 


82  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

(a)  That  student  recites  well  for  he  studies  hard. 

(b)  It  will  rain,  for  the  barometer  is  falling. 

(c)  For  wheresoever  the  carcass  is,  there  will  the 

eagles  be  gathered  together. 

(d)  Cast  thy  bread  upon  the  waters:  for  thou 
shalt  find  it  after  many  days. 

Note. — "For  is  used  chiefly  in  causal  coordinate  sentences  in 
which  the  last  sentence  expresses  the  reason  or  cause  of  the 
preceding. J ' — Stand-  Diet. 

Phrase  use:  For  as  much  as  (seeing  that;  since). 

Forever   (endlessly;  always).     As  for   (so  far  as 

concerns). 

For  short  (by  way  of  abbreviation). 

Note. — "In  the  oldest  English  for  appears  as  a  preposition; 
but  in  modern  English  for  (unlike  the  other  Coordinating  Con- 
junctions) can  link  together  sentences  only. — Onions. 

HALF 

1.  Adjective  (One  of  two  equal  parts  of  a  thing) ;  as, 

(a)  We  got  only  a  half  holiday. 

(b)  "He  is  the  half  part  of  a  blessed  man." — 

Shakespeare. 

2.  Noun:  Usually  not  followed  by  "of"  unless  preceded 

by  a  qualifying  word;  as, 

(a)  The  man  bought  half  a  pound  of  powder. 

(b)  He  deeded  the  other  half  of  his  estate  to  his 

son. 

4.  Adverb  (In  equal  part  or  degree) ;  as, 

(a)  The  boys  were  half  famished. 

(b)  "The  world  was  only  half  discovered." 

5.  Phrase  use :    Better  half,  by  halves,  half  in  half,  half 

(adverbial)  past. 

LIKE 

1.    Verb  (Have  a  taste  for;  take  pleasure  in);  as, 
I  do  not  care  whether  you  like  me  or  not. 


SPECIAL  WORD  CONSTRUCTIONS  83 

2.  Adjective  (Having  resemblance;  similar);  as, 

(a)  The  teachers  use  like  methods. 

(b)  They  are  as  like  as  two  peas. 

Note. — It  should  be  noted  that  like  as  a  verb  and  "like"  as 
an  adjective  are,  historically,  two  different  words. 

3.  Preposition  (In  the  manner  of) ;  as, 

(a)  He  walks  like  his  father. 

(b)  The  boy  talks  like  a  philosopher. 

4.  Noun  (An  equal ;  counterpart) ;  as, 

(a)  We  shall  never  see  his  like  again. 

(b)  Each  of  us  has  his  likes  and  dislikes. 

NEED  AND  NEEDS 

1.  Noun  (A  necessity ;  urgent  want) ;  as, 

(a)  "A  friend  in  need  is  a  friend  indeed/* 

(b)  Our  needs  have  been  well  supplied. 

2.  Verb  (To  have  need  for;  to  require) ;  as, 

(a)  "They  that  are  whole  need  iiot  <i  physician." 

(b)  One  needs  sympathy  in  time  of  trouble. 

(c)  He  need  not  do  it  now. 

(d)  Why  does  he  need  to  know  it? 

3.  Adverb  (Of  need  or  necessity;  derived  from  an  old 

Genitive — need-es) ;  as, 

(a)  We  must  needs  wait  till  morning. 

(b)  "So  stooping  down,  as  needs  he  must  who 

cannot  sit  upright." — Cowper. 

(c)  '  *  She  shall  go,  if  needs  must. ' ' — Browning. 

NEAR 

1.  Adverb  (Close  by,  almost) ;  as, 

(a)  Let  them  draw  near. 

(b)  "A   literary   life   of   near   thirty   years." — 

Macaulay. 

2.  Preposition  (Close  to  a  place  or  object) ;  as, 

(a)  They  were  boating  near  the  shore. 

(b)  We  stood  near  him  as  he  spoke. 


84  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

3.  Adjective  (Close,  intimate,  familiar) ;  as, 

(a)  You  are  one  of  my  near  friends. 

(b)  In  the  near  future  we  shall  report. 

(c)  Let  us  try  to  get  a  nearer  view. 

4.  Verb  (To  draw  near,  approach) ;  as, 

(a)  The  vessel  was  now  nearing  the  shore. 

(b)  As  we  neared  the  pier,  we  saw  our  friends. 

NONE 

1.  Pronoun  (not  one;  no  one) ;  as, 

(a)  " There  is  none  that  doeth  good." — Bible. 

(b)  "None  of  these  things  move  me/' — Bible. 

(c)  "None  but  the  brave  deserves  the  fair." — 

Dryden. 

Note. — Modern  usage  gives  preference  to  none  for  the  plural 
and  no  one  for  the  singular,  when  the  reference  is  to  persons; 
as,  None  were  there.  No  one  was  present. 

2.  Adverb  (In  no  respect  or  degree) ;  as, 

(a)  You  are  none  the  worse  for  the  experience. 

(b)  "He  is  none  the  happier  for  all  his  wealth." 

NOW 

1.  Adverb  (At  the  present  instant) ;  as, 

(a)  "Do  not  wait,  do  it  now." 

(b)  It  is  warm  weather  now. 

(c)  Let  us  now  proceed  to  vote. 

(d)  "Now,  Barabbas  was  a  robber."    (Sentence- 

adverb). 

2.  Conjunction  (Equivalent  to  "now  that"  in  introduc- 

ing an  inference  or  explanation) : 

"Why  struggle  longer,  now  we  are  doomed?" 

3.  Expletive  (Introducing  a  command  or  remonstrance, 

etc.) ;  as, 

(a)  Now,  you  should  close  the  door  quietly. 

(b)  Now  then,  please  leave  that  alone. 

Note. — Practically  equivalent  to  the  exclamations  "lo!" 
"  behold  I" 


SPECIAL  WORD  CONSTRUCTIONS  85 

4.  Noun  (the  present  time) ;  as, 

"An  everlasting  Now  reigns  in  nature." — Emerson. 

5.  Phrase  uses :  Now-a-days  (adverb  or  noun) ;  now  and 

again;  now  and  then;  now — now  (idea  of  swift 
changes). 

OUT 

1.  Verb  (Drive  out;  come  out) ;  as, 

(a)  Out  with  him. 

(b)  Murder  will  out. 

2.  Adjective  (External;  outside).     Commonly  in  predi- 

cative position;  as, 

(a)  This  is  the  way  in,  but  where  is  the  way  out? 

(b)  The  umpire  says  that  you  are  out. 

(c)  And   cast   ye   the  unprofitable   servant  into 

outer  darkness. 

(d)  The  tramp  was  out  at  the  toe  and  out  at  the 

knee. 

3.  Noun  (Position,  place,  or  thing  outside) ;  as, 

(a)  There  are  many  ins  and  outs  in  life. 

(b)  There  is  only  one  out  about  your  plan. 

(c)  The  measure  of  the  bin  is  from  out  to  out. 

4.  Adverb  (On  the  outside;  beyond  the  limits) :  *s, 

(a)  A  page  of  my  book  has  been  torn  out. 

(b)  We  set  out  from  Paris  last  Friday. 

(c)  They  picked  out  two  of  the  best  horses. 

5.  Preposition  (Forth  from) ;  as, 

He  threw  his  books  out  the  window. 

6.  Interjection :   Out  on  you  ! 

RIGHT 

1.  Verb  (To  change,  correct,  adjust) ;  as, 

(a)  One  should  always  right  a  wrong. 

(b)  Let  us  right  ourselves. 

2.  Adjective  (Comformable  to  some  standard;  being  in 

accordance  with  the  truth  or  facts) ;  as, 
(a)     You  have  not  found  the  right  place. 


86  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

(b)  It  was  not  right  for  you  to  speak  so. 

(c)  Every  act,  right  or  wrong,  receives  its  reward. 

3.  Adverb  (In  a  great  degree;  very,  precisely) ;  as, 

(a)  You  will  find  him  right  there. 

(b)  Speak  your  opinions  right  out. 

(c)  Be  sure  you  are  right  and  then  go  right  ahead. 

(d)  Nothing  went  right  on  the  trip. 

4.  Noun  (Whatever  is  correct;  one's  just  or  legal  claim, 

title;  interest,  etc.) ;  as, 

(a)  Right  is  opposed  to  wrong  and  will  eventually 

prevail. 

(b)  Each  one  has  certain  rights  and  privileges. 

(c)  His  right  to  appeal  is  not  in  question. 

5.  Phrase  use:  right  now,  right  off,  Right  Honorable, 

right  down,  downright,  right-about. 

SUCH 

Such  always  implies  a  comparison.  It  may  have  a  back- 
word  or  a  forward  term  of  reference.  Its  position  in  a 
sentence  may  be  adherent,  appositive,  or  predicate  at  the 
head  of  the  sentence.  Its  original  meaning  was  "so-like", 
and  today  it  seems  to  be  equivalent  to  "like  in  that  way" 
as  to  quality  or  quantity.  As  or  that,  as  the  correlative 
of  such,  is  used  before  the  subject  of  comparison. 

1.  Adjective     (Of    that    kind;    of    the    same    or    like 

kind) ;  as, 

(a)  Should  we  speak  to  such  a  man  about  such 

matters  ? 

(b)  Can  you  play  such  music  as  that? 

(c)  "Such  pictures  would  I    .    .    .    have  made." 

(d)  "Tears  such  as  angels  weep." — Milton. 

(e)  Such  is  life !  Such  are  the  parts  we  play. 

(f)  Your   habits    are   such   that   you   cannot   be 

trusted. 

2.  Pronoun  (Such  persons  or  things) ;  as, 

(a)     "He  is  the  friend  of  such  as  are  in  sorrow." 


SPECIAL  WORD  CONSTRUCTIONS  87 

(b)     "I  bring  good  tidings,  for  such  the  general 

sent." 

3.     Phrase  use :    As  such  (as  being  what  the  name  or  de- 
scription implies;  in  that  capacity) ;  as, 

(a)  He  is  the  chief  engineer,  and  as  such  can  be 

trusted. 

(b)  "Witty  men   are   apt  to  imagine   they   are 

agreeable  as  such." — Steele. 

(c)  Such-wise,  such  like,  such  and  such  a  day. 

THE 

1.  Definite  Article  (Before  nouns ;  adjectival) ;  as, 

The  moon ;  the  Duke  of  Wellington ;  the  good ;  the 
poor ;  the  dead ;  the  unbelieving ;  the  thoughtless. 

2.  Adverb    (Modifying   adjectives   and   adverbs   in  the 

comparative  degree) ;  as, 

(a)  I  am  the  better  for  having  seen  you. 

(b)  He  is  none  the  worse  for  his  trip. 

(c)  The  sooner  the  work  is  done,  the  better  it  will 

be  for  you 

THAT 

1.  Adjective  (Definitive,  pointing  to  some  object) ;  as, 

(a)  That  book  cost  me  a  dollar. 

(b)  No  one  will  believe  that  statement. 

2.  Pronoun  (a)  Demonstrative,  (b)  Relative) ;  as, 

(a)  Joe  told  us  no  tale  so  weird  as  that. 

(b)  You  have  taken  the  last  penny  that  I  had. 

(c)  He  is  the  man  that  I  saw  yesterday. 

3.  Conjunction  (Introducing  (1)  an  object  clause;  (2)  a 

reason,  purpose,  or  result) ;  as, 

(a)  He  knew  that  he  did  wrong. 

(b)  He  is  so  lame  that  he  cannot  walk. 

(c)  We  will  see  that  you  are  elected  next  time. 


88  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

4.  Adverb  (Equivalent  to  in  which  time  or  when) ;  as, 

(a)  The  moment  that  I  stop,  you  start. 

(b)  "On  the  day  that  thou  eatest  thereof  thou 

shalt  surely  die." 

5.  Phrase  use :  In  that  (because).  In  order  that  (express- 

ing the  purpose  of  the  main  verb).  But  that  (except 
or  because). 

THEN 

1.  Adverb  (At  that  time,  past  or  future) ;  as, 

(a)  Then  someone  sounded  the  alarm. 

(b)  "First  the  blade,  then  the  ear."— Bible. 

2.  Pronoun  (By  that  time) ;  as, 

(a)  Come  at  one  o'clock ;  by  then  I  shall  be  ready. 

(b)  "All  will  be  ended  by  then. "—Swift. 

(c)  "The    little    man    had    by    then    recovered 

himself." 

3.  Conjunction  (In  that  case ;  therefore) ;  as, 

(a)  So  then  what  can  you  say  for  yourself? 

(b)  "If  God  be  true,  then  is  his  word  true." 

4.  Adjective  (An  ellipsis  for  "being  at  that  time") ;  as, 

(a)  "  Our  then  Ambassador  was  there. " 

(b)  "Of  quite  another  stamp  was  the  then  ac- 

countant, John  Tipp. " — Lamb. 

5.  Phrase  use:   Now  and  then,  every  now  and  then,  till 

then,  now  then,  but  then. 

WHILE 

1.  Conjunction  (During ;  as  long  as ;  though) ;  as, 

(a)  "While    stands    the    Coliseum,    Rome    shall 

stand. ' ' — Byron. 

(b)  "While  ho  found  fault,  he  also  praised." 

2.  Adverb    (During  the  time  that;   at   the  same  time 

that) ;  as, 


SPECIAL  WORD  CONSTRUCTIONS  89 

(a)  While  walking  on  the  ice,  I  slipped. 

(b)  While  filled  with  hope,  the  heart  is  light. 

3.  Verb  (To  cause  to  pass ;  spend) ;  as, 

(a)  Is  it  right  to  while  away  one's  time? 

(b)  They  whiled  away  the  day  to  no  purpose. 

4.  Noun  (A  short  time;  one's  time  in  general)  ;  as, 

(a)  May  we  stop  here  and  rest  a  while? 

(b)  You  will  find  the  book  worth  your  while. 

WHAT 

1.  Interrogative  Pronoun.-  What  shall  I  do? 

2.  Interrogative  adjective :  What  book  is  that  ? 

3.  Relative  pronoun:  I  do  not  know  what  was  done. 

4.  Adverb:  (to  what  degree?  in  what  respect?) 

For  what  is  a  man  advantaged,  if  he  gain  the  whole 
world  and  lose  himself. — Bible. 

5.  Exclamatory  adjective :    What  a  fall  was  there ! 

6.  Interjection:  What!   Are  you  here? 

7.  Phrase  uses: 

(a)  Exclamation:    What  folly!    What  a  spend- 

thrift you  are ! 

(b)  What  with   (adverb=partly).      What    with 

work  and  what  with  study  he  had  no  time 
to  play. 

(c)  What  not  (indefinite  pronoun=" something") ; 

as, 

The  table  was  loaded  with  toys,  pictures,  and 
what  not. 

Note. — "  'What  not'  is  elliptical  for  what  may  I  not  say? 
implying  everything  else." — Cent.  Diet. 

Note  1. — "In  the  sentence,  'What  I  hold  is  mine',  what  ia 
a  condensed  antecedent-relative.  It  is  only  object  to  'hold', 
and  not  subject  to  'is';  the  subject  to  'is*  is  the  whole  noun- 
clause  'what  I  hold'." — Goold  Brown. 

Note  2. — "What,  who,  and  which  were  all  originally  interro- 
gatives  only,  and  their  interrogative  and  relative  senses  often 


90  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

mingle  and  pass  into  each  other,  so  as  not  to  be  easily  dis- 
tinguished. ' ' — Standard  Diet. 

Note  3. — "The  pronoun  what  never  has  an  antecedent,  but 
combines  within  itself  the  powers  of  antecedent  and  relative. 
Thus  'Take  what  you  want'  is  equivalent  to  'Take  that  which 
you  want'." — Fernald. 

WORTH 

1.  Verb  (to  be,  to  become,  to  befall,  to  betide) ;  as, 

"Woe  worth  the  chase";  (the  day  or  man). 

Note. — The  verb  worth  is  imperative,  and  the  following  noun 
is  an  Adverbial  Modifier. 

2.  Adjective  (Equal  in  value  or  in  price  (to)) ;  as, 

(a)  The  hat  is  worth  two  dollars. 

(b)  The  view  is  not  worth  looking  at. 

(c)  He  is  worth  his  weight  in  gold. 

(d)  To  work  for  others  is  worth  while. 

Note. — It  should  be  observed  that  the  adjective  worth  is 
always  followed  by  a  noun  or  phrase  of  measure  or  value  as 
an  Adverbial  Modifier. 

3.  Noun    (That   quality   of  anything  which   renders   it 

valuable  or  desirable) ;  as, 

(a)  He  has  great  moral  worth. 

(b)  What  is  his  worth  as  a  friend? 

YET 

1.  Adverb  (At  present;  in  addition;  still;  at  or  before 
some  future  time ;  up  to  the  present  time ;  at  least) ; 
as, 

(a)  I  have  not  yet  finished  my  work. 

(b)  "I  see  him  yet,  the  princely  boy!" — Scott. 

(c)  And  yet  he  did  it  in  good  faith. 

(d)  He  has  not  reported  to  the  class  as  yet. 

(e)  "The   yet  warm    Thracians   panting   on   the 

coast. ' ' — Pope. 

(f)  "Hope  thou  in  God;  for  I  shall  yet  praise 

him."— Bible. 


WORKS  OF  REFERENCE  91 

2.     Conjunction  (Nevertheless;  however;  but) ;  as, 

(a)  I  will  do  so,  yet  it  is  against  my  judgment. 

(b)  You  may  go,  yet  remember  there  is  another 

day  coming. 


WORKS  OF  REFERENCE 


I.    For  School  Textbooks. 

"English  Grammar":    George  R.  Carpenter. 
"Correct  English":    Josephine  Turck  Baker. 
"New  English  Grammar":    Alfred  Holbrook. 
"A  Guide  to  the  Study  of  English" :    Rowe  and  Webb. 
"The  Elements  of  English  Grammar":  George  P.  Krapp. 
"English  Grammar":    Sanford  and  Brown. 
"Lessons  in  English  Grammar":    Alfred  H.  Welsh. 
'  *  Practical  English  Grammar '  * :    John  T.  Prince. 
"Essentials  of  English  Grammar":    William  D.  Whitney. 
"Advanced  English  Grammar":    Kittredge  and  Farley. 
"English  Grammar":    J.  M.  D.  Meiklejohn. 
"A  Working  Grammar  of  the  English  Language".    James 
C.  Fernald. 


II.     For  Teachers  and  Advanced  Students. 

"New  English  Grammar":    Henry  Sweet. 

' '  The  King 's  English ' ' :    Oxford,  1906. 

"An  Advanced  English  Syntax":   C.  T.  Onions. 

"Grammar  and  Its  Reasons":    Mary  Hall  Leonard. 

"Elements  of  English  Speech":    Isaac  Bassett  Choate. 

"The  Study  of  Language":  Leonard  Bloomfield. 

"Modern  English":    George  P.  Krapp. 

' '  English  Syntax ' ' :    Leon  Kellner. 

"Grammar  of  English  Grammars" :    Goold  Brown. 

"How  To  Parse":    E.A.Abbott. 

"English  Analysis":    Samuel  S.  Greene. 

"The  Teaching  of  English  Grammar":    F.  A.  Barbour. 


92  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

"Classification  of  Sentences  and  Clauses":  Sch.  Rev., 
June  1913:  William  G.  Hale. 

"Report  of  the  Joint  Committee  on  Grammatical  Nomen- 
clature," 1913. 

"Studies  in  Logical  Theory":    John  Dewey. 

"The  Human  Intellect":    Noah  Porter. 

"Lectures  on  Linguistic  Method" :     S.  S.  Laurie. 

"The  Psychology  of  Reasoning":    W.  B.  Pillsbury. 

1 '  Studies  in  English ' ' :    Schele  De  Vere. 

"Grammar  and  Thinking":    Alfred  D.  Sheffield. 

Dictionaries:  The  Standard;  The  Century;  Webster's; 
Murray's  "New  English  Dictionary"  (Oxford). 


PART  TWO 
LESSONS  IN  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

INTRODUCTION 

Rules  —  Principles  —  Definitions 

1.  The  Sentence  as  a  whole  is  a  system  of  relations.    It 
consists  of  two  parts:     (1)   Subject  and  (2)   Predicate. 
The  substance  of  the  subject  is  called  Subject-material, 
that  of  the  predicate,  Predicate-material. 

2.  The  constituent  relational  elements  of  the  sentence 
take  the  form  of  single  words,  phrases,  and  clauses.    All 
words  and  word-groups  may  be  classified  according  to 
their  peculiar  functions  under  the  following  heads : 

I.    Principal  Relation:   primary;  non-modifying. 

(1)  Sub  ject- word :   Nouns  and  noun-equivalents. 

(2)  Predicate-verb:   Verb  (finite  and  infinite). 
II.     Coordinate  Relation:  of  equal  rank;  non-modifying. 

(3)  Subjective  complement:    Nouns,  Adjectives, 

and  Equivalents. 

(4)  Object  complement :  Nouns  and  noun-equiv- 

alents. 

III.  Subordinate  Relation:   secondary;  modifying. 

(5)  Adjectives  and  Adjectival  modifiers. 

(6)  Adverbs  and  Adverbial  modifiers. 

IV.  Relational  Connectives:  joiners  of  words  and  word- 
groups. 

(7)  Prepositions. 

(8)  Conjunctions. 


94  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

V.    Independent  Relation:  associated  with  the  sentence 
but  modifying  no  part  of  it. 

3.  The  first  step  in  sentence  analysis  is  to  select  and 
classify  the  Verb.    Starting  from  the  verb  one  is  able  to 
discover  the  Subject-word  and  then  the  Complement,  if 
any.     By  this  process  the  fundamental  type  or  skeleton 
sentence  may  readily  be  seen.    The  next  step  is  to  classify 
the  modifiers  which  are  related  to  some  one  of  the  three 
parts  of  the  fundamental  sentence.    Finally  the  sentence 
as  a  whole  is  to  be  classified. 

4.  There  are  but  two  classes  of  modifiers : 

(1)  Adjectives  and  Adjectival  Modifiers. 

(2)  Adverbs  and  Adverbial  Modifiers. 

A  modifier  belongs  to  or  limits  either  (1)  a  single  word, 
(2)  a  phrase,  (3)  a  predicate  (verb  and  complement),  or 
(4)  the  sentence  as  a  whole. 

5.  Nouns  and  pronouns  having  the  " possessive  case- 
form  "  modify  the  meaning  of  nouns  and  are  therefore  to 
be  classed  as  Adjectival  Modifiers. 

6.  A  noun  or  noun-equivalent  is  said  to  be  in  apposi- 
tion with  another  noun  or  its  equivalent,  when  it  serves 
to   identify,    explain,    or   emphasize   a   preceding   noun, 
pronoun,  or  substantive  clause. 

Hence  an  appositive  is  to  be  classed  as  an  Adjectival 
Modifier. 

Note. — "The  forms  in  -self  are  also  used  in  apposition  with 
Personal  Pronouns,  by  way  of  emphasizing  them,  as  I  myself, 
you  yourself,  they  themselves.  In  this  position  they  become 
Definitive  Adjectives,  i.  e.,  Adjectives  denning  more  exactly 
the  words  to  which  they  refer." — Onions. 

7.  In  English,  words  that  modify  the  meaning  of  single 
words  and  word-groups  look  forward  rather  than  back- 
ward, and  usually  stand  immediately  in  front  of  the  words 
which  they  qualify. 

8.  The  student  should  bear  in  mind  the  general  rule 
that  Adjectives  and  Adjectival  Modifiers  belong  to  and 
limit  nouns  and  pronouns ;  also  the  fact  that  often  single 
words  and  word-groups  though  modifying  nouns  and  pro- 


LESSONS  IN  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS  95 

nouns  are  not  adjectives  but  Adjectival  Modifiers. 

9.  The   general   rule   for   Adverbial   Modifiers   is   as 
follows :  all  single  words  and  word-groups  that  belong  to 
and  limit   the  meaning   of   a   verb,   verbal,   adverb,   or 
adjective    are    classified    as    Adverbial    Modifiers.      All 
adverbs  are  adverbial  modifiers,  but  all  adverbial  modi- 
fiers are  not  adverbs. 

10.  Certain  adverbs  modify  not  a  particular  word  in 
the  sentence  but  the  sentence  as  a  whole  or  some  part  of 
it;  as,  for  instance,  the  verb  with  its  complement,  or  a 
prepositional  phrase.    Such  uses  of  the  adverb  are  desig- 
n  a  t  e  d     as     Sentence-modifying,     Predicate-modifying, 
Phrase-modifying  adverb. 

11.  The  following  are  some  of  the  transitive  verbs  that 
regularly  take  an  Infinitive  with  the  sign  "to"  attached, 
as  Object  complement:    begin,  continue,  desire,  expect, 
fear,  have,  intend,  learn,  like,  mean,  ought,  prefer,  try, 
wish,  etc. ;  as,  The  bird  began  to  sing.    I  intend  to  write 
a  poem. 

The  verbs  dare  and  need  take  Infinitives  as  Object 
complement  either  with  or  without  to;  as, 
The  pupils  dare  not  whisper. 
They  do  not  dare  to  be  tardy. 
Does  the  teacher  dare  to  punish  them? 
We  need  to  make  haste  slowly. 
The  house  needs  to  be  painted. 
No  one  need  know  it. 

12.  The  following  verbs  in  the  active  voice  are  regu- 
larly used  with  the  Infinitive  without  the  sign  "to":  bid, 
feel,  hear,  make,  see,  and  their  participles ;  as,  We  felt  the 
house  shake.    They  departed  bidding  us  be  merry. 

13.  After  the  comparative  phrases  had  better,  had  or 
would  rather,  sooner  or  rather  than,  the  Infinitive  is  used 
without  to;  as,  You  had  better  go  home.   I  would  rather 
not  go  now. 

14.  The  transitive  verb  let  as  an  auxiliary  is  used  with 
an  infinitive  without  to  to  form  imperative  verb-phrases, 


96  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

expressing  commands,  entreaties,  exhortations,  etc.,  as, 
Let  us  walk.  Let  him  enter.  "Let  my  people  go."  In 
such  constructions  the  direct  object  of  the  verb  let  is  the 
infinitive  clause,  of  which  the  Subject-word  is  the  noun 
or  pronoun  in  the  Objective  (Accusative)  case. 

15.  A  noun  that  denotes  the  measure  of  time,  distance, 
capacity,  weight,  price,  value,  or  that  designates  direc- 
tion, and  the  degree  of  difference  is  in  definitive  con- 
struction with  the  predicate-verb  or  the  predicate  as  a 
whole,  and  is,  therefore,  to  be  classified  as  an  Adverbial 
Modifier. 

16.  A  noun,  having  meaning  similar  to  that  of  the 
intransitive  verb  with  which  it  is  used,  is  called  a  "  cog- 
nate object";  as,  "to  dream  a  dream,"  "to  run  a  race," 
"to  live  a  life".     These  nouns  are  apparent,  not  real 
objects;  they  are,  therefore,  to  be  classified  as  Adverbial 
Modifiers,  and  not  as  Object  complements. 

17.  Adverbials  in  the  form  of  a  word  or  word-group, 
as  certainly,  hence,  indeed,  moreover,  therefore,  surely; 
at  best,  at  least,  in  fact,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  by  all  means, 
etc.,  seem  to  be  related  to  the  sentence  as  a  whole,  or  to 
point    out   its   connection   with   other   sentences   in   the 
context.     They  are,  therefore,  to  be  classed  as  Sentence- 
modifying  adverbs  or  Conjunctive  adverbs. 

SPECIAL  DESCRIPTIVE  DEFINITIONS 

ADJECTIVAL:  A  word  or  word-group  used  as  an 
adjective-equivalent  to  limit  or  describe  a  substantive. 

ANTECEDENT  term :  A  term  that  goes  before  another 
term  as  an  object  of  reference  or  point  of  connection. 

ATTRIBUTE:  An  adjective  or  an  adjective-equivalent 
that  expresses  a  quality  or  characteristic  belonging 
to  a  person  or  thing. 

ATTRIBUTIVE  verb :  A  finite  verb  expressing  in  itself 
a  complete  predicate  which  characterizes  the  Subject, 
and  thus  becomes  an  attribute  of  the  Subject;  as, 
Wood  decays.  Birds  fly.  Stars  twinkle. 


LESSONS  IN  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS  97 

AUXILIARY  verb :  A  helping  word  in  the  formation  of 
the  modes  and  tenses  of  principal  or  notional  verbs. 

ADHERENT  relation :  Said  of  the  adjective  or  participle 
that  stands  directly  in  front  of  its  substantive. 

APPOSITIVE  relation:  (1)  Said  of  the  adjective  or  par- 
ticiple that  stands  immediately  after  its  substantive. 
(2)  Said  of  a  substantive  that  stands  after  another 
substantive  to  explain  or  identify  its  antecedent  term. 
The  appositive  is  said  to  be  in  apposition  with  its 
antecedent. 

ADJUNCT:  A  subordinate  element,  as  an  adjective  or 
adverb,  joined  in  thought  to  another  word  to  limit 
or  describe  its  meaning. 

ADJUNCT  ACCUSATIVE:  After  "factitive  verbs,"  as 
call,  choose,  name,  elect,  think,  show,  etc.,  there  is 
added  to  the  direct  object  (Accusative)  a  substantive 
or  adjectival  to  identify  or  describe  the  meaning  of 
the  object.  Such  a  qualifying  adjunct,  or  element, 
is  called  an  Adjunct  Accusative  (=0bjective  com- 
plement). 

ADJECTIVAL  MODIFIER:  An  adjective  or  its  equiva- 
lent that  limits  or  describes  a  noun  or  pronoun. 

ADVERBIAL  MODIFIER:  An  adverb  or  its  equivalent 
that  limits  or  modifies  the  meaning  of  a  verb,  adverb, 
adjective,  participle,  or  gerund. 

ADVERBIAL :  A  word  or  word-group  used  as  an  adverb 
or  adverb-equivalent. 

COGNATE  object :  The  noun  that  follows  an  intransitive 
verb  repeating  its  meaning  in  identical  or  in  a  dif- 
ferent form,  is  called  a  cognate  object.  The  cognate 
object,  which  is  always  an  abstract  noun  or  the 
indefinite  pronoun  "it",  is  much  different  from  a 
direct  object,  and  may  be  regarded  as  an  Adverbial 
modifier.  Examples :  to  dream  dreams,  to  die  a  death, 
to  fight  it  out,  to  run  a  race. 


98  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

CASE :  That  form  or  position  of  a  word,  or  Substantive, 
which  indicates  the  connection  and  relation  that  it 
has  with  other  words  in  a  sentence. 

Note. — In  harmony  with  the  recommendation  made  by  the 
British  Joint  Committee  on  Grammatical  Terminology  in  its 
report  of  1910,  the  Eeport  of  the  Joint  Committee  on  Gram- 
matical Nomenclature  (1913)  recommends  "the  use  of  Latin 
case  names  in  describing  English  noun-constructions." 

NOMINATIVE  case :  The  naming  case :  that  is,  the  simple 
form  of  a  noun  which  may  be  the  subject  of  a  finite 
verb. 

GENITIVE  case :  The  Genitive  is  the  possessive  case,  but 
is  extended  to  cover  source,  connection,  or  some  other 
close  relation.  Its  sign  is  an  apostrophe  with  or  with- 
out s.  It  is  sometimes  called  the  adjective  case. 

DATIVE  case:  The  Dative  is  the  case  of  the  "indirect 
object".  Etymologically  it  is  the  case  of  giving,  but 
is  extended  to  cover  relations  of  personal  interest 
or  concern. 

ACCUSATIVE :  The  Accusative  is  the  case  of  the  "direct 
object",  and  corresponds  to  the  so-called  Objective 
case. 

Note. — ' '  The  Accusative  is  the  Whither  case,  and  hence 
denotes  in  the  local  relation,  the  goal,  limit,  or  point  to  which 
the  action  of  the  verb  is  directed." — Quoted  in  Stand.  Diet. 
(Kuhner  Gr.  Gram.) 

DEFINITIVE  constructions:  Definitive  as  an  adjective 
means  having  the  function  of  defining,  or  fixing  exact 
and  final  limits.  Hence  the  articles,  the  demonstra- 
tives; and  the  reflective,  or  intensive  pronouns  used 
for  emphasis,  as  I  myself,  you  yourself,  they  them- 
selves, John  himself,  the  affair  itself,  etc.,  are  in 
definitive  construction  with  nouns  and  pronouns. 

Likewise  nouns  and  pronouns  in  which  terminates 
the  action  or  application  of  the  verb,  may  be  said  to 
be  in  definitive  construction  with  verbs.  Of  this  con- 
struction are  the  Dative  case,  or  indirect  object,  the 
Adverbial  Accusative,  or  Adverbial  Objective,  and 
the  "  retained  object ". 


LESSONS  IN  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS  99 

EXPLETIVES :  Words  that  fill  out  or  complete  the  form 
or  rhythm  of  a  sentence  or  clause,  their  function 
being  merely  introductory;  as,  there  and  it;  and  some 
instances  of  do  and  so. 

EQUIVALENT :  A  word  or  a  word-group  used  as  a  simple 
part  of  speech — Noun,  Pronoun,  Adjective,  or  Adverb, 
is  called  an  Equivalent.  There  are  three  classes : 

(1)  Substantive,  or  Noun-equivalent. 

(2)  Adjectival,  or  Adjective-equivalent. 

(3)  Adverbial,  or  Adverb-equivalent. 
SUBSTANTIVES :    Nouns  are  the  true  Substantives,  but 

noun-equivalents  (pronoun,  adjective,  adverb,  infin- 
itive verb;  gerund,  or  verbal  noun,  phrases,  and 
clauses)  are  also  classed  as  substantives. 

SUBSEQUENT  term :  A  term  that  follows  a  relational 
word  (preposition  or  conjunction)  by  which  it  is 
related  to  its  antecedent  term. 

TRANSITIVE  verb :    A  verb  that  requires  a  direct  object 
as  a  complement  to  complete  its  meaning.    The  Object 
may  be  a  quality  as  well  as  a  substance ;  as, 
John  hit  the  ball.    He  has  a  bat. 
I  gave  him  an  apple.    The  apple  had  a  yellowish 
color  and  an  odd  shape. 

INTRANSITIVE  verb :  A  verb  that  does  not  require  a 
direct  object  after  it  to  complete  its  meaning;  as, 
James  is  a  lawyer.  He  is  tall  and  manly.  The  old 
tree  has  fallen  down. 

VERBS  (Finite  and  Infinite) : 

A  finite  verb  is  a  word  that  is  limited  by  person 
and  number,  and  asserts  that  a  modifying  relation 
exists  between  a  Subject  and  a  Predicate. 

An  infinite  verb  is  a  word  that  is  not  limited  by 
person  and  number,  and  assumes  that  a  modifying 
relation  exists  between  a  Subject  (expressed  or  un- 
derstood) and  a  Predicate. 


100  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

LESSON  1 

ORAL  AND  WRITTEN  ANALYSIS 

Model  Sentence 

The  little  boy   (in  the  boat)  suddenly  threw  his  line 
1        T~         ~~4~  ~5~~       ~~2 4~  2c~ 

(into  the  water). 
"T~ 

1st.  Divide  the  sentence  into  its  natural  grammatical 
unit-elements,  that  is,  into  single  words,  phrases,  and 
clauses,  if  any. 

2d;  This  sentence  is  composed  of  single  words  and 
phrases  that  perform  certain  functions,  which  we  are  to 
classify  as  we  proceed  with  its  analysis. 

3d.  The  fundamental  sentence  is  :  boy  threw  line 
(1,  2,  2c)  a  sentence  of  the  2d  type,  of  which  "  threw "  is 
the  Predicate-verb,  transitive;  "boy"  is  the  Subject-word 
and  "line"  is  the  Object  complement. 

4th.  "The  little"  limits  the  Noun,  "boy",  and  is 
therefore  an  Adjectival  Modifier. 

5th.  "in  the  boat"  is  a  prepositional  phrase,  limits  the 
Noun,  "boy",  and  is  therefore  an  Adjectival  Modifier. 

6th.  "suddenly"  is  a  single  word,  limits  the  Verb, 
"threw",  and  is  therefore  an  Adverb. 

7th.  "his"  is  a  single  word,  limits  the  Noun,  "lineV 
and  is  therefore  an  Adjectival  Modifier. 

8th.  ' '  into  the  water  "  is  a  prepositional  phrase,  limits 
the  Verb,  "threw",  and  is  therefore  an  Adverbial 
Modifier. 

9th.  Classification:  This  is  a  simple,  declarative  sen- 
tence. 


LESSONS  IN  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS-         101 

LESSON  2 
SIMPLE  AND  COMPLEX  SENTENCES 

Oral  and  Written  Analysis 

1.  Leaves  fall.    Fire  burns. 

2.  The  pupils  are  studying  their  lessons. 

3.  In  spring  the  green  hills  are  beautiful. 

4.  That  man  with  the  big  book  is  a  lawyer. 

5.  In  the  background  rose  the  mist. 

6.  In  1066  was  fought  the  battle  of  Hastings. 

7.  On  Monday  will  be  shown  the  entire  collection. 

8.  At  the  foot  of  the  terrace  is  a  large  lagoon. 

9.  On  another  page  we  print  two  illustrations. 

10.  The  small  boy  enjoys  selling  papers  on  the  street. 

11.  While  we  waited  the  storm  increased  in  fury. 

12.  John  walked  home,  sorrowful,  because  he  had  lost 

his  money. 

13.  If  we  remain  here  any  longer,  the  dark  will  overtake 

us. 

14.  We  are  now  standing  on  the  spot  where  the  Pilgrims 

landed. 

15.  Ichabod,  who  had  no  relish  for  this  strange  midnight 

companion,  now  quickened  his  steed. 

LESSON  3 

SIMPLE  AND  COMPLEX  SENTENCES 

Oral  and  Written  Analysis 

A. 

1.  The  village  smithy  stands  under  a  spreading  chest- 

nut tree. 

2.  The  blacksmith  has  large  hands  and  long  black  hair. 


ANALYSIS 


3.  He  is  honest  and  can  look  the  whole  world  in  the 

face. 

4.  From  morning  till  night  he  slowly  swings  his  heavy 

sledge. 

5.  On  Sunday  he  goes  to  church  and  sits  among  his 

boys. 

6.  He  hears  his  daughter's  voice  singing  in  the  choir. 

B. 

1.  At  evening  the  stag  made  his  lair  beneath  the  hazel 

trees. 

2.  In  the  morning  he  heard  the  clanging  of  hoof  and 

horn,  and  sprang  from  his  heathery  couch  in  haste. 

3.  The  impatient  rider  strove  in  vain  to  rouse  his  gal- 

lant horse. 

4.  The  hunter  having  lost  his  way  began  to  blow  his 

horn. 

5.  A  maiden  concealing  herself  among  the  leaves  of  the 

trees  tried  to  catch  a  glimpse  of  the  hunter  coming 
toward  her. 

C. 

1.  A  man  who  is  honest  will  be  respected. 

2.  The    boat    which    left    yesterday    was    laden    with 

lumber. 

3.  That  the  problem  is  difficult  is  quite  evident  to  all 

of  us. 

4.  A  man  should  often  reflect  upon  his  past  course  in 

life. 

5.  A  wise  writer  once  said  that  pride  goes  before  a  fall. 

6.  How  shall  I  find  my  way  to  the  city? 

7.  Alas!    How  are  the  mighty  fallen! 

8.  Did  you  forget  your  lesson  today? 

9.  Where  are  the  books  that  lay  on  the  table  ? 

10.  The  hope  that  you  will  soon  return  gives  me  great 

pleasure. 

11.  The  globe  on  which  we  live  is  called  a  planet. 

12.  The  man  who  wastes  his  money  will  eventually  come 

to  want. 


LESSONS  IN  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS          103 

13.     No  one  knows  when  the  war  will  end  nor  who  will 
be  the  victors. 

LESSON  4 

PHRASES  AS  EQUIVALENTS 

Substantive :    Function  of  a  Noun. 
Adjectival :    Function  of  an  Adjective. 
Adverbial :    Function  of  an  Adverb. 

Oral  and  Written  Analysis 

1.  From  here  to  town  is  a  long  way. 

2.  From  morning  to  night  is  called  day. 

3.  ' '  Out  of  sight  is  out  of  mind. ' ' 

4.  To  sleep  well  is  a  sign  of  good  health. 

5.  He  has  no  intention  of  sending  the  money. 

6.  Almost  every  one  likes  to  hear  good  music. 

7.  To  strive  to  do  good  should  be  a  great  aim  in  life. 

8.  I  came  to  have  a  talk  with  you  about  our  plans. 

9.  "A  thing  of  beauty  is  a  joy  forever." 

10.  A  friend  of  mine  lives  in  a  cottage  by  the  sea. 

11.  "The  love  of  money  is  the  root  of  all  evil." 

12.  Agassiz,  the  scientist,  had  no  time  to  make  money. 

13.  Hearing  an  uproar  we  hastily  ran  out  of  the  house. 

14.  In  our  sturdy  boat  we  were  carried  along  with  the 

tide. 

15.  "Snuffing  the  candle  was  a  favorite  sport  on  the 

frontier." 


LESSON  5 

THE  COMPLEX  SENTENCE 

1.  I  found  it  to  be  just  what  I  wanted. 

2.  That  he  should  have  done  this  surprises  me. 

3.  The  truth  is  he  is  very  careless. 


104  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

4.  Let  me  see  what  you  have  in  your  hand. 

5.  We  heard  that  you  were  ill  with  a  fever. 

6.  There  is  but  one  thing  that  you  can  do :  study  for 

the  examination. 

7.  You  certainly  told  me  what  you  intended  to  do  with 

the  money. 

8.  "I  shall  be  glad  to  have  you  forward  this  letter  to 

whoever  is  the  proper  person  to  see  it." — T. 
Roosevelt. 

9.  "A  civilization  which  allows  itself  to  be  intoxicated 

by  the  madness  of  mere  size,  by  speed,  by  quantity 
is  destined  to  end  in  a  new  type  of  crass  and 
violent  barbarism." — G.  Ferrero. 

10.  How  the  prisoner  made  his  escape  is  a  mystery. 

1 1 .  Who  will  do  this  work,  is  the  next  question. 

12.  Where  the  treasure  was  hidden  cannot  be  ascertained. 

13.  It  is  our  hope  that  no  harm  will  come  to  him. 

14.  My  wish  is  that  you  shall  attend  a  private  school. 

15.  The  promise  that  you  made  to  me  then  was  that  you 

would  visit  me  in  the  spring. 


LESSON  6 

THE  PASSIVE  VOICE 

1.  When  the  letter  came,  it  was  hurriedly  opened  and 

read  by  the  official. 

2.  The  author  was  called  careless,  because  he  misspelled 

words. 

4.  For  three  nights  in  succession  a  stranger  was  seen  in 

the  lone  house  on  the  hill. 

5.  For  several  days  a  letter  had  been  expected  by  every 

member  of  the  family. 

6.  When  the  fire  bell  was  heard,  everybody  rushed  into 

the  street. 

7.  No  one  can  tell  when  the  work  will  be  finished  or 

when  the  building  will  be  ready  for  occupancy. 

8.  When  the  letter  had  been  written  it  was  taken  to  the 


LESSONS  IN  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS         105 

postoffice. 

9.     A  daring  robbery  was  committed  yesterday,  but  the 
thief  has  not  yet  been  apprehended. 

10.  The  new  townsite  has  been  named  Newton,  and, 

from  now  on,  will  be  advertised  far  and  wide. 

11.  Special  problem:     Bead  the  Fifty-third  Chapter  of 

Isaiah;  count  all  the  Predicate-verbs  and  classify 
them  into  three  groups:  (1)  Intransitive;  (2) 
Active;  (3)  Passive. 


LESSON  7 


INFINITIVE  CLAUSES  AND  ADVERBIALS 

1.  He  is  an  honest  man. 

2.  We  know  that  he  is  an  honest  man. 

3.  They  believed  him  to  be  honest. 

4.  The  children  saw  the  man  open  the  letter. 

5.  The  officers  found  him  opening  the  letter. 

6.  They  considered  him  to  be  a  tramp. 

7.  We  know  of  none  being  sick  at  present. 

8.  On  our  return  we  found  it  to  be  him. 

9.  The  people  elected  Washington  president. 

10.  They  named  the  child  Mary. 

11.  I  believe  the  man  to  be  honest. 

12.  The  teacher  forbade  the  pupils  to  enter. 

13.  His  comrades  proclaimed  him  a  hero. 

14.  They  thought  him  a  coward. 

15.  Your  goodness  makes  me  ashamed. 

16.  Why  should  you  think  him  dishonest? 

17.  People  called  him  a  fortunate  man. 

18.  Why  do  you  always  want  me  to  do  your  work  for 

you? 

19.  We  saw  the  speaker's  eyes  twinkle  with  merriment. 

20.  The  old  man  asked  his  visitors  to  take  a  seat  by  the 

fire. 

21.  It  is  impossible  for  one  to  please  everybody. 


106  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

22.  The  captain  ordered  the  wounded  soldier  to  be  car- 

ried back  to  camp. 

23.  Yesterday  we  saw  our  friends  take  the  train  for 

home. 

24.  Because  my  friend  is  tall  they  took  him  to  be  me. 

25.  "Let  us  hope  tomorrow's  entertainment  will  be  more 

agreeable. ' ' — Thackeray. 

LESSON  8 

THE  APPOSITIVE  CONSTRUCTION 

1.  We  Americans  are  said  to  be  extravagant. 

2.  Solomon,  the  son  of  David,  wrote  many  proverbs. 

3.  Do  you  think  that  Paul  Jones,  the  attorney,  can  be 

elected  to  the  next  legislature? 

4.  David  mourned  for  Absalom,  his  beloved  son. 

5.  "Sweet  Auburn!  loveliest  village  of  the  plain, 
"Where  health  and  plenty  cheered  the  laboring  swain. " 

6.  "It  was  Jeroboam,  the  son  of  Nebat,  who  made  Israel 

to  sin." 

7.  We,  that  is,  the  most  of  us,  do  not  always  appreciate 

ethical  values. 

8.  The  proprietor  of  vast  estates,  he  has  spent  many 

years  in  travel  and  leisure. 

9.  The  grand  secret  of  all  his  mistakes  was  this,  the 

not  being  guided  by  the  written  word. 

10.  "The  original  'Star-spangled  Banner',  the  flag  that 
inspired  Francis  Scott  Key  to  write  the  anthem,  is 

to  be  unfurled  again  over  the  rampart  of  historic 
Fort  McHenry  on  September  12,  the  anniversary 
of  North  Point." 

11.  "No  finer  tribute  could  be  paid  to  any  public  man 

than  was  addressed  by  Sir  Edward  Carson  in  these 
words  referring  to  Mr.  Bonar  Law:  'Of  all  the 
men  that  I  have  ever  met  he  is  the  most  single- 
minded,  with  nothing  guiding,  directing  or  con- 
trolling him  but  his  absolute  love  of  his  duty,  and 


LESSONS  IN  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS          107 

his  detestation  and  horror  of  betrayal'." — Wm. 
H.  Knight. 


LESSON  9 

SPECIAL  ADVERBIAL  CONSTRUCTIONS 

1.  The  train  was  running  twenty  miles  an  hour. 

2.  My  friend  arrived  yesterday  morning. 

3.  We  expect  to  go  home  tomorrow. 

4.  They  were  called  three  times. 

5.  The  boat  is  twenty-five  feet  long. 

6.  I  am  three  inches  taller  than  you. 

7.  The  miners  came  west  in  1849. 

8.  Beauty  is  only  skin  deep. 

9.  We  were  taken  this  way  by  our  guide. 

10.  The  accident  happened  five  miles  from  here. 

11.  His  hesitation  and  delay  cost  him  his  life. 

12.  The  merchandise  is  certainly  worth  the  price. 

13.  Let  me  ask  you  one  question. 

14.  He  paid  the  steward  a  small  fee  to  give  his  coat  a 

good  brushing. 

15.  I  think  I  will  have  my  house  painted  gray. 

16.  The  strangers  asked  the  boy  to  show  them  the  way 

to  the  postoffice. 

17.  That  old  umbrella  stood  me  in  good  stead. 

18.  The  youth  was  twenty-one  when  his  uncle  left  him 

a  small  fortune. 
20.    If  I  ask  you,  will  you  tell  me  whom  he  is  like  ? 


LESSON  10 

EXPLETIVES  AND  ADVERBIALS 

1.  Here  is  one  book  here.    There  is  one  there. 

2.  One  is  here  and  one  is  over  there. 

3.  There  are  three  men  there  at  the  door. 


108  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

4.  The   three  men  here   and   the  two  over  there  are 

policemen. 

5.  How  many  were  there  at  the  party? 

6.  There  were  only  twenty-one  persons  present. 

7.  The  book  on  the  table  is  mine. 

8.  There  is  my  book  there  on  the  floor. 

9.  I  have  seen  no  one  there  for  a  long  time. 

10.  I  have  long  wanted  to  see  your  home. 

11.  Have  you  ever  tried  to  teach  your  dog  tricks? 

12.  The  fight  is  on :  let  every  man  do  his  duty. 

13.  ' l  On  with  the  dance :  let  joy  be  unconfmed. ' ' 

14.  Stay  a  little  while  longer  and  keep  me  company. 

15.  ''How  happy  are  the  saints  above,  who  once  went 

sorrowing  here!" 

16.  "Shall  all  the  world  go  free?" 

17.  Such  conduct  will  lose  you  your  friends. 

18.  Please  tell  me  where  I  can  find  my  book. 

19.  Yesterday  nature  played  us  an  unpleasant  trick. 

20.  The  boy  told  me  to  go  one  block  west  and  two  north. 

21.  This  agreement  saved  my  father  much  trouble. 

22.  They  meant  us  no  good  by  such  actions,  but  much 

harm. 

23.  We  must  needs  forgive  them  their  faults. 

24.  The  father  allowed  his  son  but  one  dollar  a  week. 


LESSON  11. 

EXPLETIVES  AND  ADVERBIALS 

1.  That  I  am  no  longer  young  is  true. 

2.  There  is  a  house  to  let  two  blocks  away. 

3.  We  take  long  walks  mornings  and  evenings. 

4.  It  is  said  that  the  indirect  object  is  in  the  Dative 

case. 

5.  This  lesson  is  very  well  worth  learning. 

6.  It  is  mind,  after  all,  that  does  the  work  of  the  world. 

7.  Let  me  give  you  a  form  for  writing  a  note. 

8.  The  exhausted  man  asked  me  to  send  relief. 


LESSONS  IN  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS          109 

9.    He  asks  them  the  way  and  sings  of  them  as  he  walks. 

10.  "Let  there   be   some   who  forgive   and  many  who 

forget. " 

11.  There  being  no  quorum,  the  meeting  was  adjourned. 

12.  It  is  not  wise  for  one  to  praise  himself. 

13.  The  plan  for  him  to  escape  punishment  failed. 

14.  For  them  to  make  such  a  failure  was  inevitable  from 

the  start. 

15.  "I  know  it  is  a  sin 

For  me  to  sit  and  grin 

At  him  here." — Holmes. 

16.  It  is  probable  that  they  will  never  return. 

17.  It  is  not  well  for  one  to  live  alone. 

18.  It  is  wrong  for  me  not  to  love  my  country. 

19.  It  happened  that  I  was  away  at  the  time. 

20.  That  he  would  fail  was  a  foregone  conclusion. 

21.  There  are  only  two  ways  which  lead  us  to  where 

we  may  expect  to  see  new  views  opened  before  us. 

22.  So  you  think  you  can  do  this  as  well  as  I,  do  you? 


LESSON  12 

COMPARATIVE  CONSTRUCTIONS  WITH  "THAN" 

1.  My  friend  has  a  better  disposition  than  I. 

2.  Mine  is  a  far  better  book  than  yours. 

3.  Yours  is  a  better  plan  than  mine. 

4.  I  know  a  better  way  of  doing  it  than  that. 

5.  He  said  he  knew  a  better  way  than  to  jump. 

6.  To  argue  the  matter  is  better  than  to  get  angry 

and  fight. 

7.  John  told  me  he  knew  better  than  to  resist. 

8.  My  situation  is  no  worse  than  yours. 

9.  "A  living  dog  is  better  than  a  dead  lion." 

10.  His  rudeness  is  more  apparent  than  real. 

11.  I  think  it  better  for  you  to  remain  a  while,  than  to 

go  alone  in  the  storm. 

12.  They  need  food  now  more  than  ever. 


110  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

13.  I  know  no  more  than  this, — he  failed  in  his  business 

last  Spring. 

14.  Smith  can  do  better  than  forty  miles  an  hour  with 

his  car. 

15.  His  mileage  this  year  is  no  greater  than  last. 

16.  Your  load  is  just  two  tons  heavier  than  his. 

17.  Charles  says  he  is  two  years  older  than  John. 

18.  Farmer  Jones  is  better  off  than  you  think. 

19.  My  friend  has  more   thought  for  others  than  for 

himself. 

20.  It  is  better  to  do  good  than  to  do  evil. 

21.  We  have  more  money  than  we  need  to  pay  all  our 

expenses. 

22.  The  idea  comes  from  some  other  source  than  one's 

personal  desire. 

23.  "When  thou  prayest,  rather  let  thy  heart  be  without 

words,    than    thy    words    without    a    heart. " — 
Bunyan. 

24.  "Yet  read  the  names  that  know  not  death; 

Few  nobler  ones  than  Burns  are  there ; 

And  few  have  won  a  greener  wreath 

Than  that  which  binds  his  hair." — Halleck. 


LESSON  13 

COMPARATIVE   CONSTRUCTIONS  WITH 

"AS"  AND  "SO" 

1.  He  is  as  good  as  can  be. 

2.  He  is  not  so  rich  as  he  appears  to  be. 

3.  Do  we  always  get  as  much  as  we  deserve? 

4.  The  fisherman  fears  nothing  so  much  as  a  noise. 

5.  That  poor  man  has  as  much  as  he  can  do  to  make 

a  living. 

6.  Boy  as  he  was,  they  looked  to  him  as  their  leader. 

7.  Be  so  kind  as  to  have  me  excused. 

8.  You  are  not  so  unfortunate  as  you  would  have  us 

think. 


LESSONS  IN  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS          111 


9.     I  am  not  so  wealthy  as  I  hope  to  be  some  time. 

10.  He  was  so  kind  as  to  tell  me  the  whole  story. 

11.  Be  so  kind  as  to  remain  here  a  while. 

12.  Do  as  I  do  and  not  as  I  say. 

13.  So  you  are  late  again  as  usual. 

14.  He  did  the  work  as  quickly  as  possible. 

15.  He  did  not  so  much  as  say  he  was  sorry. 

16.  "As  the   hart  panteth  after  the  water-brooks,  so 

longeth  my  soul  after  Thee,  0  God."— Bible. 

17.  "So  fight  I,  not  as  one  that  beateth  the  air."— Bible. 

18.  "When  I  was  a  child,  I  spake  as  a  child,  I  under- 

stood as  a  child :  but  when  I  became  a  man,  I  put 
away  childish  things." — Bible. 


LESSON  14 

CONSTRUCTIONS  WITH  "AS",  "SO",  "SUCH" 

1.  As  ye  sow,  so  shall  ye  reap. 

2.  Let  the  children  play  as  hard  as  they  please. 

3.  Your  book  is  as  good  as  mine. 

4.  Your  pencil  is  not  so  long  as  John's. 

5.  My  hat  is  just  twice  as  good  as  yours. 

6.  If  you  are  busy,  say  so. 

7.  Bring  with  you  such  books  as  you  have. 

8.  I  have  not  such  kind  treatment  as  I  used  to  have. 

9.  "As  have  been  our  sorrows,  so  let  our  joys  be  great 

and  long." 

10.  "As  a  man  thinketh  in  his  heart,  so  is  he." 

11.  "For  a  thousand  years  in  thy  sight  are  but  as  yes- 

terday when  it  is  past,  and  as  a  watch  in  the 
night.  "—Bible. 

12.  "So  teach  us  to  number  our  days,  that  we  may  get 

us  a  heart  of  wisdom." — Bible. 

13.  You  say  you  are  his  friend;  so  am  I. 

14.  If  you  are  sorry  about  that  affair,  so  am  I. 


112  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

15.  "So,  as  much  as  in  me  is,  I  am  ready  to  preach  the 

gospel  to  you  that  are  at  Rome  also." — Bible. 

16.  I  bring  you  peace  and  happiness ;  for  such  he  sent. 

17.  He  is  guilty  and  must  be  punished  as  such. 

LESSON  15 

MISCELLANEOUS  SENTENCES 

1.  He  resigned  rather  than  be  transferred. 

2.  Shall  I  say  "How  are  you?  or  How  do  you  do?" 

3.  "What  words  are  these  have  iall'ii  from  me?" — 

Tennyson. 

4.  "He  helped  to  bury  whom  he  helped  to  starve." — 

Pope. 

5.  "The  little  beggars  are  doing  just  what  I  do  not 

want  them  to  do." — Stevenson. 

6.  His  whole  theme  centered  around  what  our  duty  in 

the  matter  was. 

7.  "As  to  all  the  seceded  States,  the  real  question  is, 

how  to  get  them  again  into  proper  relation  with 
the  Union." 

8.  Act  upon  this  proverb :    '  *  Slow  and  steady  wins  the 

race." 

9.  They  are  the  very  persons  whom  we  have  described 

them  to  be. 

10.  "His  fame  as  a  statesman  can  never  outrun  his  fame 

as  a  man." 

11.  The  bank  examiner  described  the  scheme  as  "nothing 

but  a  graft  proposition  from  start  to  finish." 

12.  "Behold  the  branch  that  thou  madest  strong  for 

thyself."— Bible. 

13.  "He  chose  David  and  took  him  from  the  sheepfold; 

from  following  the  ewes  he  brought  him." — Ib. 

14.  "They  have  said :  Come,  and  let  us  cut  them  off  from 

being  a  nation." — Ib. 

15.  "When  I  was  a  king  and  a  mason, 

A  worker,  proven  and  skilled, 


LESSONS  IN  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS         113 

I  started  to  build  me  a  palace, 
Such  as  a  king  might  build. ' ' 

16.  If  anybody  would  make  me  the  greatest  king  that 
ever  lived,  with  palaces  and  gardens,  and  fine 
dinners  and  wine,  and  coaches  and  beautiful 
clothes  and  hundreds  of  servants  on  condition 
that  I  would  not  read  books,  I  would  not  be  a 
king. — I  would  rather  be  a  poor  man  in  a  garret 
with  plenty  of  books,  than  a  king  who  did  not 
love  readin  g. ' ' — Macaulay . 


LESSON  16 

VERBALS  IN  -ING 

1.  Running  an  engine  requires  expert  knowledge. 

2.  He  preferred  shaking  hands  with  the  workingmen. 

3.  There  is  no  time  left  for  finishing  the  work. 

4.  Is  it  right  to  call  doing  one 's  duty  an  obligation  ? 

5.  Doing  one's  duty  is  setting  a  good  example. 

6.  Being  a  man  of  principle  he  would  scorn  doing  any- 

thing mean. 

7.  Upon  touching  the  other  bank  of  the  stream  the 

deer  ran  for  its  life. 

8.  I  was  not  surprised  at  their  going  east  so  suddenly. 

9.  His  being  injured  delayed  the  game  twenty  minutes. 

10.  After  being  ordered  by  the  physician  to  remain  quiet 

a  half  hour,  he  decided  to  obey. 

11.  Some  doubts  were  expressed  as  to  his  ever  having 

seen  a  big  battle. 

12.  After  having  been  told  that  the  bridge  was  not  safe, 

yet  they  ventured  to  attempt  to  cross  it. 

13.  And  of  us  all  there  is  no  one  but  would  say  that 

reading  is  a  help  to  writing. 

14.  "True  worth  is  in  being,  not  seeming; 

In  doing  each  day  that  goes  by 
Some  little  good ;  not  in  dreaming 
Of  great  things  to  do  by  and  by.'1 


114  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

LESSON  17 

ADVERBIAL  MODIFICATION 

Sentence:  Predicate:  Phrase 

1.  He  was  wealthy  at  one  time. 

2.  You  are  certainly  most  ungracious. 

3.  The  committee  was  unanimously  in  favor  of  the  new 

project. 

4.  Woe  to  them  that  are  at  ease  in  Zion! 

5.  A  river  was  there  once  upon  a  time. 

6.  I  know  at  least  what  my  own  experience  is. 

7.  Truly  that  was  an  unpleasant  situation,  and  fortu- 

nately I  was  not  a  part  of  it. 

8.  Perhaps  before  hearing  the  story,  certainly  after- 

wards, he  came  to  have  a  deep  interest  in  the 
welfare  of  the  mission. 

9.  After  careful  consideration  we  are  glad  to  say  that 

yours  is  indeed  an  excellent  plan. 

10.  The  youth  wore  a  happy  smile ;  for  did  he  not  stand 

first  in  his  class? 

11.  The  prospects  for  our  agreement  upon  a  league  of 

nations  are  just  now  very  encouraging. 

12.  The  daily  papers  report  that  our  hardest  times  are 

likely  to  be  ahead. 

13.  We  are  all  very  glad  that  you  have  come  so  early. 
14;.     Certainly   there    cannot   be   evolved   what   has   no 

beginning. 

LESSON  18 

MISCELLANEOUS  SENTENCES  AND  EXTRACTS 

1.  This  I  call  the  ultimate  mirage  of  mysticism. 

2.  The  grand  secret  of  all  his  mistakes  was  his  not 

being  guided  by  the  advice  of  his  friends. 


LESSONS  IN  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS          115 

3.  In  most  pathetic  language  he  describes  how  he  him- 

self was  all  but  ruined  by  those  reckless  theories. 

4.  True,  he  lost  his  money  but  he  gained  a  friend. 

5.  There  can  be  little  doubt  but  that  I  shall  be  at  home 

all  day  tomorrow. 

6.  Not  content  with  sending  me  into  exile,  the  author- 

ities confiscated  all  my  property. 

7.  The  veriest  schoolboy  has  learned  to  laugh  at  that 

picture. 

8.  A  house-boat  is  floating  down  the  Sind  river,  which 

is  right  at  our  tent  door. 

9.  The  double  rainbow  that  graced  the  occasion  reached 

clear  across  the  meadow. 

10.  I  took  a  plunge  and  enjoyed  a  good  swim,  but  found 

the  water  a  bit  cold,  as  it  was  right  from  the  snow. 

11.  ' 'For  if  I  make  you  sorry,  who  then  is  he  that  maketh 

me  glad  but  he  that  is  made  sorry  by  me." — Bible. 

12.  ''While  life's  dark  maze  I  tread, 

And  griefs  around  me  spread, 

Be  Thou  my  guide; 
Bid  darkness  turn  to  day, 
Wipe  sorrow's  tears  away, 
Nor  let  me  ever  stray 

From  Thee  aside."— Rev.  Ray  Palmer. 

13.  "His  spear,  to  equal  which  the  tallest  pine 

Hewn  on  Norwegian  hills,  to  be  the  mast 
Of  some  great  ammiral,  were  but  a  wand, 
He  walk'd  with,  to  support  uneasy  steps 
Over  the  burning  marie." — Milton. 

LESSON  19 

SELECTED  SENTENCES  AND  EXTRACTS 

1.  "Always  there  must  be  lofty  souls  to  keep  alive  the 

ideal  principle  in  a  nation." — Ed.  Markham. 

2.  "To  be  a  man  means  not  to  be  a  brute.   His  spirit 

is  above  his  body  and  always  in  command." — 
Dr.  Crane. 


116  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

3.  "If  you  will  study  this  analysis,  I  think  you  will  find 

it  the  needle  in  the  moral  compass  pointing  at 
what  we  are  here  for." — Wm.  B.  Harvey. 

4.  He  went  away  long  before  you  came. 

5.  This  principle  of  life  was  I  taught  by  my  parents. 

6.  "There  was  Peter  in  his  self-will,  trusting  his  own 

wisdom  .  .  .  And  yet  how  much  there  was 
wanting  in  Peter  ...  I  do  not  think  we  can 
judge  into  what  a  depth  of  humiliation  Peter 
sank." 

7.  Most  people  think  it  is  hard  to  be  good. 

8.  " Later  on  at  the  Lake  of  Galilee,  He  asked  him: 

"Lovest  thou  me?" 

9.  How  many  have  asked  the  question :    '  *  Is  life  worth 

living?" 

10.  The  military  conflict  is  ended.     What  next?     The 

immediate  thing  is  to  arrange  the  terms  of  peace 
according  to  justice  and  righteousness. 

11.  During  the  war,  and  even  now,  the  great  problem 

was  and  is  to  bring  men  and  nations  to  a  due 
sense  of  moral  accountability. 

LESSON  20 

MISCELLANEOUS  SENTENCES 

1.  The  indirect  object  is  in  the  Dative  case. 

2.  The  indirect  object  is  said  to  be  in  the  Dative  case. 

3.  The  rule  says  that  the  indirect  object  is  in  the  Dative 

case. 

4.  ''Come  what  may,  I  have  been  blessed." — Byron. 

5.  But  as  has  been  said  so  often,  it  is  all  a  mystery. 

6.  I  have  heard  it  said  that  he  who  steals  will  very 

likely  be  found  out. 

7.  "Who  do  people  say  the  Son  of  man  is?" 

8.  "But  better  than  all  else  is  this:  he  who  sees  my 

worst  is  still  my  friend." 

9.  "They  mean  that  men  shall  become  free  without  it 


LESSONS  IN  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS          117 

ever  beginning  to  dawn  upon  them  that  they  have 
been  slaves.'* 

10.  "One  who  has  studied  the  history  of  mankind  even 

a  little  knows  how  cruel  and  miserable  has  been 
the  history  of  nations." 

11.  "Of  no  other  poet,  except  Shakespeare,  have  so  many 

phrases  become  household  words  as  of  Words- 
worth. ' ' — Lowell. 

12.  This  matter  had  until  a  day  or  two  ago  been  under 

discussion. 

13.  "America  has  succeeded  in  producing  riches  at  a 

rate  of  speed  that  man  has  never  yet  attained 
elsewhere  in  the  world." 

14.  "Like    Aaron's    rod    that    budded,    Foch's    life    is 

a -flower  with  inspirational  lessons. "  —  C.  E. 
Laughlin 

15.  "Let  us  take  to  our  hearts  .a  lesson, 

No  lesson  can  nobler  be, 
From  the  ways  of  the  tapestry  weavers 

On  the  other  side  of  the  sea." — Dr.  A.  G.  Chester. 

16.  "Theodore  Roosevelt  died  too  young,  far  short  of  the 

allotted  span.  But  he  lived  in  one  day  more  than 
many  men  live  in  a  lifetime.  He  would  not  com- 
plain, and  the  millions  of  friends  that  he  leaves 
may  know  that  his  life  was  such  as  he  would 
have  had  it. 

"As  a  youth  he  was  a  cowboy,  on  his  own 
ranch,  roping  steers,  killing  grizzlies;  later  at 
Albany  as  legislator;  in  New  York  as  police  com- 
missioner and  governor;  in  Washington  as  Presi- 
dent, and  the  last  years  not  retired  but  still 
fighting.  "—Editorial. 

LESSON  21 

TYPICAL  FORMS  OF  QUOTATIONS 

1.     "This,"  he  began,  "is  really  an  extraordinary  dis- 
covery." 


118  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

2.  ' '  Do  you  mean  to  leave  us  now  ? ' '  put  in  Brown  with 

a  little  tantalizing  laugh. 

3.  "No,"  he  answered  meekly,  and  again  settled  back 

into  his  chair. 

4.  The  driver  called  "All  aboard!"  and  Mr.  Hamlin 

returned  to  the  coach. — Bret  Harte. 

5.  "It  is  natural,"  she  went  on,  rapidly,  in  a  voice  that 

trembled  strangely  between  pride  and  humility, 
"it  is  natural  that  he  should  take  to  you." — Ib. 

6.  "Why,  the  truth  is,  my  dear,"  said  Mr.  Pecksniff, 

smiling  upon  his  assembled  kindred,  "that  I  am 
at  a  loss  for  a  word." — Dickens. 

7.  "That  will  do,  John,"  said  Natty,  raising  his  prize 

by  one  of  his  fingers,  and  exhibiting  it  before  the 
torch:  "I  shall  not  strike  another  blow  tonight." 
— Cooper. 

8.  "0  Rebecca,  how  can  you —  '  was  all  that  Briggs 

could  say  as  she  turned  up  her  eyes. 
"0  Rebecca,  how  can  you — "  echoed  my  lord.    "So 
that  old  scoundrel's  dead,  is  he?" — Thackeray. 

9.  "Why,  what  is  the  matter  with  you?"  he  cried,  as  he 

linked  his  arm  through  mine,  "you  look  outdone, 
tired  all  the  way  through  to  your  backbone." — 
Henry  Van  Dyke. 

10.  "No,  Mr.  Pierrepont,"  replied  the  dealer,  "the  pic- 
ture is  worth  what  I  ask  for  it,  for  I  would  not 
commit  the  impertinence  of  offering  a  present  to 
you  or  your  friends ;  but  it  is  worth  no  more. " — Ib. 

LESSON  22 
ADDISON'S  SIR  ROGER  DE  COVERLEY 

I.  Sir  Roger's  Country  Residence  and  Friends. 

Having  often  received  an  invitation  from  my  friend  Sir 
Roger  de  Coverley  to  pass  away  a  month  with  him  in  the 
country,  I  last  week  accompanied  him  thither,  and  am 
settled  with  him  for  some  time  at  his  country-house,  where 


LESSONS  IN  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS          119 

I  intend  to  form  several  of  my  ensuing  speculations.  Sir 
Roger,  who  is  very  well  acquainted  with  my  humor,  lets 
me  rise  and  go  to  bed  when  I  please,  dine  at  his  own  table 
or  in  my  chamber  as  I  think  fit,  sit  still  and  say  nothing 
without  bidding  me  be  merry.  "When  the  gentlemen  of 
the  county  come  to  see  him,  he  only  shows  me  at  a  dis- 
tance. As  I  have  been  walking  in  his  fields,  I  have 
observed  them  stealing  a  sight  of  me  over  an  hedge,  and 
have  heard  the  knight  desiring  them  not  to  let  me  see 
them,  for  that  I  hated  to  be  stared  at. 

II.  Will  Wimble,  a  Guest. 

As  I  was  yesterday  morning  walking  with  Sir  Roger 
before  his  house,  a  country  fellow  brought  him  a  huge 
fish,  which,  he  told  him,  Mr.  William  Wimble  had  caught 
that  very  morning;  and  that  he  presented  it,  with  his 
service  to  him,  and  intended  to  come  and  dine  with  him. 
At  the  same  time  he  delivered  a  letter,  which  my  friend 
read  to  me  as  soon  as  the  messenger  left  him. 

"Sir  Roger — I  desire  you  to  accept  of  a  jack,  which  is 
the  best  I  have  caught  this  season.  I  intend  to  come  and 
stay  with  you  a  week,  and  see  how  the  perch  bite  in  the 
Black  River.  I  observed  with  some  concern,  the  last  time 
I  saw  you  upon  the  bowling-green,  that  your  whip  wanted 
a  lash  to  it;  I  will  bring  half  a  dozen  with  me  that  I 
twisted  last  week,  which  I  hope  will  serve  you  all  the 
time  you  are  in  the  country.  I  have  not  been  out  of 
the  saddle  for  six  days  last  past,  having  been  at  Eton  with 
Sir  John's  eldest  son.  He  takes  to  his  learning  hugely. 
I  am,  Sir,  your  humble  servant, 

"Will  Wimble." 

LESSON  23 

MY  OWN  SHEPHERD 

Psalm  XXIII. 

"How  shall  we  touch  this  lovely  psalm  and  not  bruise 
it?  It  is  exquisite  as  'a  violet  by  a  mossy  stone'!  Expo- 


120  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

sition  is  almost  an  impertinence,  its  grace  is  so  simple 
and  winsome. 

''There  is  the  ministry  of  rest.  'He  maketh  me  to  lie 
down  in  green  pastures.'  The  Good  Shepherd  knows 
when  my  spirit  needs  relaxation.  He  will  not  have  me 
always  'on  the  stretch'.  The  bow  of  the  best  violin 
sometimes  requires  to  have  its  strings  'let  down'.  And 
so  my  Lord  gives  me  rest. 

"And  there  is  the  discipline  of  change.  'He  leadeth 
me  in  the  paths  of  righteousness.'  Those  strange  roads 
in  life,  unknown  roads,  by  which  I  pass  into  changed 
circumstances  and  surroundings !  But  the  discipline  of 
the  change  is  only  to  bring  me  into  new  pastures,  that  I 
may  gain  fresh  nutriment  for  my  soul.  'Because  they 
have  no  changes  they  fear  not  God.' 

"And  there  is  'the  valley  of  the  shadow,'  cold  and 
bare !  What  matter  ?  He  is  there !  '  I  will  fear  no  evil. ' 
What  if  I  see  'no  pastures  green'?  Thy  rod  and  Thy 
staff  they  comfort  me ! '  The  Lord,  who  is  leading,  will 
see  after  my  food.  'Thou  preparest  a  table  before  me  in 
the  presence  of  mine  enemies. '  I  have  a  quiet  feast  while 
my  foes  are  looking  on!" — John  Henry  Jowett. 

;  LESSON  24 

THE  RULING  PASSION 

"In  every  life  worth  writing  about  there  is  a  ruling 
passion, — "the  very  pulse  of  the  machine."  Unless  you 
touch  that,  you  are  groping  around  outside  of  reality. 


"To  tell  about  some  of  these  ruling  passions,  simply, 
clearly,  and  concretely,  is  what  I  want  to  do  in  this  book. 
The  characters  are  chosen,  for  the  most  part,  among  plain 
people,  because  their  feelings  are  expressed  with  fewer 
words  and  greater  truth,  not  being  costumed  for  social 
effect.  The  scene  is  laid  on  Nature's  stage  because  I  like 


LESSONS  IN  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS          121 

to  be  out-of-doors,  even  when  I  am  trying  to  think  and 
learning  to  write. 

•  ''•'•.'•'-.•••'• 

' '  The  soft  sea-fog  clothed  the  night  with  clinging  dark- 
ness ;  the  faded  leaves  hung  slack  and  motionless  from  the 
trees,  waiting  for  their  fall;  the  tense  notes  of  the  surf 
beyond  the  sand-dunes  vibrated  through  the  damp  air 
like  cords  from  some  mighty  violono;  large,  warm  drops 
wept  from  the  arbor  while  I  sat  in  the  garden,  holding 
the  poor  little-  book,  and  thinking  of  the  white  blot  in 
the  record  of  a  life  that  was  too  proud  to  bend  to  the 
happiness  that  was  meant  for  it." — Henry  VanDyke. 

LESSON  25 

WALTER  BAGEHOT,  A  LITERARY  BANKER 

President  Wilson  called  him  (Walter  Bagehot)  a  liter- 
ary politician,  a  wit,  and  a  seer.  "To  ask  your  friend  to 
know  Bagehot,"  he  wrote,  in  an  appreciative  essay  some 
years  ago,  "is  like  inviting  him  to  seek  pleasure.  Occa- 
sionally a  man  is  born  into  the  world  whose  mission,  it 
evidently  is  to  clarify  the  thought  of  his  generation  and 
to  vivify  it ;  to  give  it  speed  when  it  is  slow,  vision  when 
it  is  blind,  balance  where  it  is  out  of  poise,  saving  humor 
when  it  is  dry,  such  a  man  was  Walter  Bagehot." 
##*### 

But,  like  scores  of  young  men  who  have  studied  law,  no 
sooner  had  Bagehot  prepared  himself  for  the  practice  of 
law  than  he  resolved  to  abandon  it,  and  thereupon  entered 
into  the  banking  business  with  his  father  in  Langport. 
His,  however,  was  not  the  humdrum  life  of  a  country 
banker. 


Banker,  to  be  sure,  he  was,  but  a  literary  banker.  Later 
in  life,  in  pursuit  of  the  literary  side  of  his  profession, 
he  became  editor  of  the  London  Economist. 


122  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

Bagehot  was  never  the  avowed  exponent  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  any  party,  he  was  "between  sizes  in  politics", 
and  his  views  on  finance  were  considered  sane  and 
sagacious  and  commended  themselves  to  public  confidence. 

Such  was  Bagehot  as  his  many-sided  genius  is  revealed 
to  us  of  the  present  generation  through  his  miscellaneous 
writings. 
Meth.  Rev.  1914.  —Prof.  E.  W.  Bowen,  Ph.D. 

LESSON  26 

ORIGINS  OF  POETRY 

"Leaving  out  the  accident  of  metre,  we  could  discover 
these  origins  of  poetry  every  day  in  the  Kindergarten. 
A  little  boy  is  trying  to  guess  the  name  of  his  teacher's 
friend,  and  not  having  in  his  mind  the  name  of  the  general 
concept  first,  he  asks,  'What  is  the  letter  that  lives  on  the 
edge  of  it?'  Another  conveys  his  abstract  notion  of 
height  in  the  words,  'Nearest  the  sky.' 

"There  is  no  escaping  the  picturesque.  I  find  this 
memorandum  of  a  bit  of  such  instruction  in  the  early 
diary  of  Helen  Keller: 

"  'Nancy  was  cross.    Cross  is  cry  and  kick.' 

"Now,  if  we  could  arrange  so  that  all  the  children  of 
the  world  should  become  teachers  of  the  adults,  telling 
them  how  to  turn  their  talking  into  poetry,  we  should 
find  exactly  such  memoranda  in  the  note-books  of  the 
pupils.  They  would  be  taught  that,  'Cross  is  cry  and 
kick.'  " — Eastman. 


LESSON  27 

MISCELLANEOUS  EXTRACTS 

1.     "This  plan  was  in  advance  submitted  to  the  then 
Cabinet,  and  distinctly  approved  by  every  member  of  it. 


LESSONS  IN  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS          123 

One  of  them  suggested  that  I  should  then  and  in  that 
connection  apply  the  Emancipation  Proclamation  to  the 
theretofore  excepted  parts  of  Virginia  and  Louisiana. ' ' — 
Lincoln. 

2.  ''This  cup  of  liberty  we  will  dash  from  you,  and 
leave  you  to  the  chances  of  gathering  the  spilled  and  scat- 
tered   contents    in    some,    vague,    and    undefined    when, 
where,  and  how." — Lincoln. 

3.  "According  to  Nicephorus,  Paul  was  a  little  man, 
crooked,  and  almost  bent  like  a  bow;  with  a  pale  coun- 
tenance, long  and  wrinkled;  a  bald;  head;  his  eyes  full 
of  fire  and  benevolence ;  his  beard  long,  thick,  and  inter- 
spersed with  gray  hairs,  as  was  his  head." 

4.  "Two  principles  in  human  nature  reign; 

Self-love  to  urge,  and  reason,  to  restrain ; 
Nor  this  a  good,  nor  that  a  bad  we  call, 
Each  works  its  end,  to  move  or  govern  all : 
And  to  their  proper  operations  still 
Ascribe  all  good;  to  their  improper,  ill." — Pope. 

5.  "We  think  our  fathers  fools,  so  wise  we  grow; 

Our  wisest  sons,  no  doubt,  will  think  us  so." 

— Pope. 

6.  "Now  as  words  affect,  not  by  any  original  power, 
but  by  representation,  it  might  be  supposed  that  their 
influence  over  the  passions  should  be  but  light;  yet  it  is 
quite  otherwise ;  for  we  find  by  experience  that  eloquence 
and  poetry  are  as  capable,  nay  indeed  much  more  capable, 
of  making  deep  and  lively  impressions  than  any  other 
arts,  and  even  than  nature  itself  in  very  many  cases. 
And  this  arises  chiefly  from  these  three  causes." — Burke. 

LESSON  28 

SELECTED  SENTENCES  AND  EXTRACTS 

1.  Whatever  skill  or  cost  could  do  was  done. 

2.  Experience  does  not  come  from  anywhere.    It  is  here. 

3.  It  is  better  to  be  noble  than  base,  true  than  false, 

loving  than  selfish. 


124  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

4.  Some  things  need  to  be  inspected  and  described  as  a 

whole  rather  than  to  be  divided  or  analyzed. 

5.  Critical  discernment  is  not  sufficient  to  make  men 

poets. 

6.  Some  insects  take  color  from  the  plants  they  lodge  on. 

7.  This  did  not  hinder  their  receiving  him  as  an  angel 

from  heaven. 

8.  ''Rock  of  Ages,  cleft  for  me, 

Let  me  hide  myself  in  Thee ; 
Let  the  water  and  the  blood, 
From  thy  riven  side  which  flowed, 
Be  of  sin  the  double  cure, 
Save  from  wrath  and  make  me  pure. ' ' 
"In  sooth,  I  know  not  why  I  am  so  sad: 
It  wearies  me;  you  say  it  wearies  you; 
But  how  I  caught  it,  found  it,  or  came  by  it, 
What  stuff  'tis  made  of,  whereof  it  is  born, 
I  am  to  learn; 

And  such  a  want-wit  sadness  makes  of  me. 
That  I  have  much  ado  to  know  myself." — Shakespere. 
"Let  there  be  a  cottage,  standing  in  a  valley,  eighteen 
miles  from  any  town;  let  it  be,  in  fact,  a  white  cottage, 
embowered  with  flowering  shrubs.    Let  it,  however,  not 
be  spring,  nor  summer,  nor  autumn;  but  winter,  in  its 
sternest  shape." — De  Quincey. 

"Advocate  of  social  democracy  as  he  is,  and  eager  for 
its  sway  over  all  the  earth,  he  does  not  believe  that  feudal 
absolutism  can  be  transformed  into  its  opposite  without 
passing  through  other  phases  of  national  existence  to 
which  Russia  is  yet  a  stranger." 

LESSON  29 

SELECTED  EXTRACTS 

1.  "The  invention  of  the  steam-engine  made  possible 
the  exploitation  of  vast  countries  and  the  swift  creation 
of  wealth. 


LESSONS  IN  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS          125 

,  2.  "What  service  is  there  in  struggling  to  make  one 
idea  triumph  over  another  instead  of  allowing  men  to 
draw  from  each  idea  the  good  which  each  can  yield?  .  .  . 

3.  "In  the  lap  of  modern  civilization  there  are  twin 
worlds  struggling  with  each  other  for  leadership.   These 
two  worlds  are  Quality  and  Quantity.     It  was  Quality 
not  Quantity  which  carried  our  forefathers  forward  in 
civilization.    .    .    . 

4.  "To  create  beautiful  palaces,  to  construct  beautiful 
furniture,  to  attain  the  distant  ideal  of  perfection,  time 
is  essential, — time  and  wise  deliberations.    .    .    . 

5.  "The  Modern  World  demands  two  contradictory 
things,  speed  and  perfection. ' ' — G.  Perrero. 

6.  "The  ear  is  the  pathway,  not  only  to  the  heart,  as 
the  French  say,  but  to  the  mind." 

7.  "Why,  any  man,  that  is,  any  good  man,  that  had 
such  a  mother,  would  have  done  exactly  the  same." — 
Fielding. 

8.  "They  were  my  enemies,  because  they  grieved  to 
think  me  rich,  and  my  oppressors,  because  they  delighted 
to  find  me  weak." — Samuel  Johnson. 

9.  "Imitation:  it  enters  into  the  very  fastnesses  of 
character;  and  we,  our  souls,  ourselves,  are  forever  imi- 
tating what  we  see  and  hear,  the  forms,  the  sounds  which 
haunt  our  memories,  our  imagination." 


LESSON  30 

NATIONAL  HONOR  AND  DEMOCRACY 

A  book  that  has  just  come  out,  discussing  the  question 
of  national  honor,  finds  that  there  is  no  such  quantum  in 
international  affairs.  Wrongly,  we  think;  for  the  diver- 
gencies which  the  author  finds  in  the  interpretation  of  the 
term,  from  Bismarck  to  Roosevelt,  do  not  imply  that 
there  is  no  real  and  actual  standard  behind  the  differ- 
ences. The  fact  is  that  the  recent  world  war  has  been,  in 
essence,  the  struggle  of  a  type  of  statesmanship,  French, 


126  SENTENCE  ANALYSIS 

British,  Italian,  American,  that  recognizes  a  gentleman's 
code  of  honor  in  national  affairs,  and  the  other  a  ruthless 
type,  with  headquarters  at  Berlin,  that  has  discarded  it. 


"You  Englishmen  will  always  be  fools,"  remarked  a 
cynical  Prussian,  * '  and  we  Prussians  will  never  be  gentle- 
men."  This  foolishness  seems  to  consist  in  being  true 
to  a  moral  obligation,  even  when  it  does  not  seem  to  pay. 
Now  the  result  of  the  present  titanic  struggle  shows  that 
such  "foolishness"  does  pay,  especially  in  political 
matters.  The  moral  test  still  remains  the  final  test  of 
victory  or  defeat.  German  autocracy  failed  to  see  this, 
and  so  Kaiserism  has  collapsed.  It  is  doubtful  whether 
the  socialism  which  takes  its  place  is,  at  heart,  any  less 
selfish  and  cynical.  Critical  observers  detect  no  moral 
change  in  the  German  attitude.  Getting  hold  of  the  reins 
of  power  and  using  it  entirely  to  benefit  friends  and  hurt 
opponents;  this  seems  to  be  regarded  as  the  acme  of 
political  wisdom.  A  trno  democracy,  a  Christian  nation, 
is  based  on  no  such  selfish  code  of  action. 


The  fact  is.  democracy  works  for  a  sane  and  noble 
imperialism  and  away  from  local  butter-and-breadism. 
Our  red,-white-  and  blue  flag  which  floats  so  proudly 
today  on  every  sea  and  continent,  is  imperial  as  well  as 
democratic.  It  stands  for  imperial  moral  obligation;  for 
that  national  and  commercial  code  of  honor,  holding  sway 
from  ocean  to  ocean,  without  which  no  democracy  can 
survive  and  flourish. 

Jan.  1919.  James  Main  Dixon. 


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